NATURE-STUDY 


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FREDERIC 


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NATURE -STUDY 

A   MANUAL   FOR  TEACHERS   AND   STUDENTS 


Monarch,    * 
Aiwsia  fuxiffm 

Red  admiral,  <f 


Mourning  cloak,  cf 

1  ><-.  ,,>,fss,,  antwfa. 

Buckeye.    9 


Cabbage  butterfly,   9 


Tiger  swallow-tail,  of 

l\ifilio  glancus  tunins. 

Great  spangled   fritillary,  cf 

slrgyiitiu   rybtlf. 

Black  swallow-tail,  cf 


Cosmopolitan,   9 

/  V»;/«.M  r.rrrfi//. 

Roadside  butterfly, 


Red-spotted  purple,   9 
Kasilarfhia  astyanax. 

Violet-tip,  9 
Polygonia  intcrrogationis. 

'I-roin  specimens  arranged  liy  the  Children's  Museum,  Brooklyn.) 


NATURE-STUDY 

A   MANUAL   FOR   TEACHERS 
AND    STUDENTS 


BY 
FREDERICK    L.    HOLTZ,    A.M. 

Head  of  Department  of  Nature- Study,  Brooklyn  Training  School  for  Teachers,  New 
York  City,     formerly  Head  of  Department  of  Biology  and  Nature- 
Study,   State   Normal   School,    Mankato,    Minn. 


ILLUSTRA  TED 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 
1 908     . 


VA 


Copyright,  1908,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  designed  as  an  aid  and  guide  to  the  practical 
teacher,  and  as  a  text-book  in  methods  of  nature-study  for 
normal  and  training  schools. 

Part  I  is/ devoted  to  a  discussion  of  underlying  principles 
and  methods.  A  just  appreciation  of  the  purpose  of  nature- 
study  and  a  good  technique  in  teaching  are  as  essential  as  a 
knowledge  of  subject-matter,  especially  in  a  subject  like  this, 
which  must  be  taught  without  text-books. 

Part  II  contains  appropriate  subject-matter  of  a  biological 
nature,  and  practical  hints  and  suggestions  on  the  collection 
and  care  of  material,  and  the  presentation  of  lessons.  I  have, 
however,  avoided  working  out  complete  lesson-plans  for  the 
teacher,  believing  it  far  better  to  allow  her  to  adapt  the  sub- 
ject-matter herself  to  her  own  conditions,  and  to  give  an  op- 
portunity for  originality. 

Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  teaching  of  life-histories,  life- 
habits,  functions  and  processes,  and  not  on  mere  structure 
study.  Of  chief  importance  also  in  nature-study  are  the 
adaptations  to  function  and  environment,  the  interrelations 
of  plants  and  animals,  their  economic  aspects,  and  practical 
bearing  on  human  life. 

Part  III  consists  of  a  course  of  nature-study  for  the  eight 
grades.  It  represents  a  serious  effort  to  organize  and  im- 

238837 


vi  PREFACE 

prove  the  present-day  courses  in  this  subject,  and  is  based 
upon  an  exhaustive,  comparative  examination  of  the  curricula 
at  the  principal  nature-study  centres  in  this  country.  The 
requirements  of  both  city  and  rural  schools  are  considered, 
and  enough  material  is  given  to  permit  a  rich  treatment  in 
either  case. 

In  the  Appendix  is  a  carefully  selected,  classified,  and  an- 
notated list  of  reference  books  and  nature  readers. 

A  few  illustrations  have  been  kindly  loaned,  for  which 
credit  is  given  in  each  case.  Mrs.  Henry  Parsons,  Director 
of  the  Children's  Farm  School,  New  York  City,  furnished 
the  photograph  for  figure  97. 

I  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  and  express  my  gratitude 
to  all  who  have  assisted  or  encouraged  me  in  the  preparation 
of  this  book,  particularly  to  my  wife;  to  my  former  colleagues, 
Mr.  John  A.  Hancock  and  Miss  Martha  V.  Collins,  of  the 
State  Normal  School,  Mankato,  Minn.;  to  Dr.  Stuart  H. 
Rowe,  of  the  Training  School  for  Teachers,  Brooklyn,  N. Y. ; 
and  to  Mr.  Geo.  P.  Englehardt,  Children's  Museum,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

FREDERICK  L.  HOLTZ. 


TRAINING  SCHOOL  FOR  TEACHERS,  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 
Feb.  15,  1908. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

\PTER  PAGE 

I.    THE  MOTIVE  IN  NATURE-STUDY       ....  3 

The  social  motive.     Natural  interest. 

II.    THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  NATURE-STUDY    .        .        8 
Discipline  of  mental  functions:  observation,  comparison, 
general    reasoning,  and    imagination.     The    practical 
utility  of  nature-study. 

III..    THE    ^ESTHETIC    AND   ETHICAL  VALUE   OF   NATURE- 
STUDY     14 

Cultural  value.  Primitive  culture.  The  nature  instinct. 
Enjoyment  of  nature.  Developing  sympathetic  atti- 
tude toward  nature.  The  ethical  and  spiritual  value 
of  nature-study. 

IV.     STUDYING  NATURE  IN  THE  GRADES — How  AND  WHAT  .       21 

Informal  methods.  The  scientific  method.  The  devel- 
opment method.  The  teacher's  preparation.  Giving 
the  lesson.  Rules  for  questioning. 

V.    ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL 33 

Function  in  the  lesson.  Kinds  of  illustrations  and  their 
value:  actual  objects,  models,  pictures,  diagrams,  etc. 
The  experiment.  The  museum.  Live  specimens. 
Outdoor  observations.  The  field  lesson. 

VI.     CORRELATION 53 

Principles  of  application — correlation  with  geography,  art 
study,  and  literature. 

PART  II 

VII.    ANIMAL  STUDY 71 

General  principles  of  selection  and  presentation.  Out- 
lines for  study  of  animals.  Emphasis  on  life  habits, 
adaptations,  and  life  histories.  Courses  of  mammal 
lessons. 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VIII.     BIRD  STUDY  .........      81 

Interest  in  birds.     How  to  observe.     Lessons  on  birds. 
Bird  calendar.     Bird  habits. 


IX.     BIRDS 


Descriptive  of  structure  and  habits  of  birds  —  nesting,  mi- 
gration, food  and  economics. 

X.     PROTECTION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  BIRDS  .        .        .132 
Natural  enemies  and  dangers,    hunting,  millinery,  etc. 
Audubon  Society  and  other  protective  agencies.     Bird 
Day.     Attracting  the  birds.     Bird  houses. 


XI.     FROGS,  TOADS,  SALAMANDERS,  LIZARDS,  TURTLES,  ETC.     148 
:e  and  fear  for  these  animals. 
Economic  value  of  toads,  etc. 


Counteracting  prejudice  and  fear  for  these  animals.     De- 
velopment of  frog.     Econc 


XII.     FISHES— AQUARIA 165 

Stocking  and  care  of  aquaria.     Study  of  fish. 

/Kill.    TYPICAL  INSECTS  .        .        . 175 

/  Observing  and  collecting.     Mounting,  structure,  develop- 

ment, habits,  and  classification  of  types  from  the  chief 
orders:  Locust,  dragon-fly,  bug,  beetle,  butterfly, 
moth,  fly,  bee. 

>XXIV.  INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  .  .  .  .211 
Mosquito,  household  pests,  garden  and  field  insects, 
orchard  and  forest  enemies.  Insects  and  pollination; 
adaptations.  Parasitic  insects.  Silk-worm.  Common 
harmless  insects.  Butterflies  and  moths.  Protective 
form  and  color,  and  mimicry. 

/XV.     SOME  LOWER  ANIMALS       .        .        •;..,,     •        •       246 
Spiders — their  structure,  habits,  webs.       Cray-fish,  lob- 
sters, etc.     Snails  and  bivalves.     Earthworm.     Coral. 
Sponge. 

XVI.    THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN 258 

Function  as  outdoor  laboratory.  Moral  training  by 
means  of  gardening.  Value  in  city.  Need  of  practical 
agricultural  training  in  the  country.  How  to  make  a 
school  garden.  Indoor  gardening.  Horticultural  and 
gardening  hints.  Insecticides  and  fungicides.  Plant 
lists. 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVII.     LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 299 

Germination  studies.  Root  function.  Biennials.  Stem 
structure  and  function.  Tree  trunks.  Propagation 
stems.  Buds.  Leaves  and  their  functions — transpira- 
tion and  starch-making.  Modified  leaves.  The  flower 
and  its  function.  Pollination.  Types  of  flowers.  How 
to  study  the  whole  plant.  Movements  of  plants.  Seed 
dispersal.  Grasses  and  cereals.  Useful  plants. 

XVIII.    TREES    .' 358 

Growth  and  life  of  a  tree.  Stem  structure.  Foliage. 
Autumn  coloration  and  leaf-fall.  Flowers  and  fruit. 
Conditions  determining  forest  distribution.  Forest  con- 
ditions. Influences  and  uses  of  forests.  Destructive 
agencies.  Arbor  Day — purpose,  programmes.  Beau- 
tification  of  school-grounds.  Tree-planting. 

XIX.     FLOWERLESS  PLANTS 388 

Fern,  Equisetum,  moss,  liverwort,  lichen,  and  mushrooms. 

PART  III 

GRADED  COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY 399 

APPENDIX 

REFERENCE  BOOKS  AND  NATURE  READERS        .        .        .        .511 

INDEX      .  539 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Butterflies  (Colored)     ........        Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Guinea  Pigs 35 

School  Specimen  Cabinet    .........       44 

Nature-Study  Class  on  a  Field  Lesson         ......       50 

Brook  at  Work  Removing  a  Landslide        ......       56 

Blue  Jay  (Pupil's  Work) 58 

Pupils'  Drawing.     Tulips    .........       63 

Good  Comrades  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .72 

Bat  with  Membranous  Wings      ........       74 

A  Female  Rose-Breasted  Grosbeak  with  Young.         .         .         .         .82 

Wing  of  Chicken  with  Quills  and  Coverts  .....  92 

Wing  of  Chicken  Showing  Attachment  of  Quills          ....       93 

Barn  Swallow's  Nest  ..........       94 

Nest  of  Chipping  Sparrow  .........       95 

Nest  of  Wood  Thrush 97 

Chimney  Swift ...     102 

Robin's  Nest ...     no 

Oriole's  Nest in 

Humming-Bird's  Nest          ....  ....     113 

Wren  Box,  Showing  Nest  and  Young          .         .         .         .         .         .114 

Young  Grosbeaks,  just  Hatched          .         .         .         .         .         .         .116 

A  Weedy  Corn-field,  Feeding  Ground  of  Birds  .         .         .         .         .121 

Feeding  the  Chickens 123 

Apple  Tree  Showing  Woodpecker's  Work  .         .         .         .         .         -125 

Red  Owl 128 

Hunting  Grouse  ..........     134 

Young  Grosbeaks         ..........     I41 

Bird's  Drinking  Trough 144 

Bird  Houses  and  Robin  Tray 146 

Frog's  Eggs i49 

Toad's  Eggs  15° 

Development  of  Frog  .         .         . IS1 

The  Toad   .         .         . 157 

Protective  Coloration  of  the  Toad 158 

Aquaria •  J66 

Aquarium  with  Sunfish        .         .         .         .         •         •         •         •         .168 

The  Gill  of  a  Fish 171 

Pond  for  Collecting  Aquatic  Creatures 178 

Decaying  Stump  Harboring  Insects 179 

Insect  Net 180 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Cyanide  Bottle    ...........     180 

Mounted  Beetle  ...         .......     181 

Spreading  Board          .........         .     182 

Young  and  Old  Locust        .....  '      .         .         .         .184 

Compound  Eye  of  Dragon-Fly    .......         -185 

Mouth  Parts  of  Locust        .         .         .......     186 

Breathing  Pore  of  a  Cockroach  .......     187 

Dragon-Fly  ...........     zSg 

Dragon-Fly  Emerging  from  Nymph  Case   ......     190 

Some  Aquatic  Insects  ......         .         .         .191 

Wing  of  a  Bug    .         ..........     192 

Head  and  Beak  of  a  Bug    .  .......     193 

Cage  of  Luna  Moths  ..........     194 

Insect  Cage          ...........     195 

Eggs  and  Young  Caterpillars  of  Cabbage  Butterfly     .         .         .         .196 

Milkweed  Caterpillar  on  Milkweed  Leaf     ......     197 

Milkweed  Caterpillar  Getting  Ready  to  Pupate  .         .         .  197 

Chrysalis  of  Milkweed  Butterfly  .         ......     198 

Milkweed  or  Monarch  Butterfly  Just  Out  of  Chrysalis       .         .         .198 
Scales  on  the  Wing  of  a  Moth    ........     199 

Cecropia  Moth  Just  Out  of  Cocoon    .......     200 

Caterpillar  Spinning  Cocoon  and  Finished  Cocoon      ....     201 

A  Beetle      ......         ......     202 

Head  and  Mouth  Parts  of  Predaceous  Beetle      .....     202 

House  Fly   ............     203 

Honey  Bees:  Drone,  Queen,  and  Worker    ......     204 

Head  of  Honey  Bee    ..........     205 

Sting  and  Poison  Bladder  of  Honey  Bee     ......     206 

Hornet's  Nest      .         .         .         .         ...         .         .       .•*         .     208 

Brood  Comb  Inside  a  Hornet's  Nest  .  .         .       ..'.         .     209 

Mosquito,  Male  and  Female        .        -.         .  .         .         .         .212 

Development  of  Mosquito  .         .         .         ....         .        '.         .     213 

Plant-Lice  .....  ,       .         .       -.         .         .      •:  ,         .     217 

Tent  of  Webworms     .         .         .         .         .         .      "..,.:•....     220 

Butterflies  and  Bumble-Bees  on  Clover       .         .       -.       '.         ,;        .     225 
Sphinx  Moth  Probing  Flower      .         '.         .       •  8       .-.,        .    '  .  /        .     226 
Ant  Cage     .         .         .         .  .      •  .         .       :i     "   .    ."/>..•  •   •     231 

Cricket         .         .         .         .    '•    .         .-'-.'.         .         .         .         .     233 

Cricket's  Sounding  Wing     .         .       '  .         ......     234 

Ear  of  Cricket     .         .         .  _•  v.   ,  .     .         .         .         .         .         .         .     234 

Katydid       ........         ....     235 

Cicada         ...........         .     235 

Molted  Skin  of  Cicada         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     236 

Monarch  Butterfly  Sipping  Nectar  from  Clover  .         .         .         .237 

Comma  Butterfly  Just  Out  of  Chrysalis      .         .         .         .         .         -237 

Sphinx  Moth  with  Extended  Proboscis        .         .....     238 

Cecropia  Caterpillar    ......        -  .         .         .         .     240 

Luna  Moth          ...........     242 

Walking  Stick      ...........     244 

Protective  Coloration  of  Bark  Moth    .         ...         .         .         .     245 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Orb  Spider           .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .                   .  247 

Funnelweb  Spider        ..........  248 

Dewy  Web  of  an  Orb  Spider      ........  249 

Spinneret     ............  250 

Crayfish       ............  252 

Land  Snails 253 

Children's  Farm  School,  New  York  City 259 

The  Children's  School  Garden    ........  263 

Plan  for  Border  Planting 264 

Plan  for  School  Garden 268 

Plan  of  Individual  Bed        . 271 

Bulb-Planting  Diagram       .........  280 

Plants  Growing  in  a  School-Room 285 

Grafting 289 

Budding       ............  291 

Germinators  for  Observing  Seedlings           ......  300 

Oak  Seedling       ...'........  301 

Experiment:  Removal  of  Cotyledon  of  Bean        .         .         .         ,         .  302 

Germinating  Corn        ..........  303 

Fibro.vascular  Strands  in  Plantain  Leaf       ......  305 

Section  of  Corn  Stalk,  Showing  Fibrovascular  Bundles       .         .         .  306 

Trunk  of  White  Elm 307 

Trunk  of  White  Birch .         .308 

Cross-Section  of  Elm,  Showing  Annual  Rings,  Etc.     ....  309 

Rootstalk  of  Solomon's  Seal         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  310 

Development  of  Buds  into  Branches  .         .         .         .         .         .         .312 

Cotton  wood  and  Butternut  Twigs  with  Buds      .         .         .         .         -313 

Transpiration .         .         .         .         -315 

Diagram  of  Cross-Section  of  a  Leaf    .         .         .         .         .         .         .316 

Diagram  of  Longitudinal  Section  of  a  Plant  Showing  Flow  of  Sap,  etc.  317 

Aquatic  Plants  Giving  Off  Oxygen .  319 

Wake  Robin 322 

Pasque  Flower    .                   323 

Staminate  and  Pistillate  Flowers  of  Squash 325 

Sweet-Pea                              .     - 326 

Pollination  of  Sweet-Pea .         -327 

Development  of  Sweet-Pea  into  Fruit 328 

Pistillate  and  Staminate  Flowers  of  Boxelder 329 

Jack-in-the-Pulpit 330 

Staminate  Catkin  of  Cotton  wood 331 

Pistillate  Flowers  of  Cotton  wood 332 

Pussy-Willows -  333 

Sunflower 334 

Section  through  Sunflower,  Showing  Composite  Structure  .         .         .  335 

Thistle 336 

Squash  Seedling           .         .         .         .         . 339 

Plants  Turning  Toward  the  Light 34° 

Sensitive  Plant  Closing  its  Leaves 343 

Seed  Dispersal  in  Neglected  Corner    .......  344 

Pretty  Seed  Pods  of  "  Butterprint "  Weed 345 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Russian  "Thistle" 346 

Wing  Fruit  of  Elm 347 

Dandelion  Gone  to  Seed 348 

Cocklebur 350 

Waahoo  Bush  Displaying  Fruit  After  Leaf- Fall 351 

Explosive  Fruits 352 

Timothy  Grass  in  Flower 354 

Grass  Flower 355 

Indian  Corn  Plant 355 

Staminate  Flower  of  Indian  Corn        .  356 

Ear  of  Corn  or  Pistillate  Flowers 356 

The  Forest 359 

Trunk  of  Red  Oak 360 

White  Elm  in  Flower  ..........  364 

Cottonwood  Trees  by  a  River 365 

Shelf  Pore-Fungus  , 367 

Grove  of  Hard  Maples 369 

Denuded  Hill  Showing  Erosion .  371 

Unshaded  School-Grounds  .........  376 

Farm  Homestead  Surrounded  by  Trees       .         .         .         .         .         -377 

A  Wounded  Tree  Healing 382 

A  Street  Beautified  by  Shade  Trees 384 

Trees  and  Vines  Improve  a  House 386 

Spore  Dots  on  a  Fern  Leaf     .    .- 389 

Moss-Covered  Boulder -39° 

Liverwort  Encrusting  a  Cliff 391 

Agaricus  Campestris   .       "... 392 

Development  of  Mushroom          . 393 

Poisonous  Toadstool,  Amanita    .        *;       '. 394 

Wood-Destroying  Toadstool 395 


PART   I 
GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  NATURE-STUDY 


A : :/:  *"S     '*!••••?  :NATURE-STUD  Y 

be   in   an   intelligent   relation  with   man  and  nature,  just 
as  much  as  in  adult  years. 

The  child  wants  to  know  about  the  social  and  industrial 
life  around  him,  and  the  origin,  working,  and  use  of  the 
manifold  devices  and  processes  on  every  hand.  He  not  only 
wants  to  know  these  things  for  himself,  but  that  he  may 
explain  them  to  others;  to  entertain,  to  be  helpful  and  useful 
to  others.  Later  comes  the  desire  to  share  in  the  world's 
work  as  a  self-supporting  member  of  society. 

When  studies  are  presented  with  this  social  consideration 
the  pupils  appreciate  the  motive  themselves — perhaps  not 
fully — but  enough  to  make  them  feel  it  worth  their  while  to 
study.  A  real  interest  is  infused  into  their  work,  a  real 
object  to  be  gained  is  perceived.  They  feel  that  they  are 
studying  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  learning,  but  for  the  bear- 
ing it  has  upon  their  own  lives. 

The  reality  of  the  studies  and  their  connection  with  life 
are  made  very  evident  when  they  are  drawn  from  the  child's 
immediate  home,  the  surrounding  fields  and  hills,  the  school- 
house  itself,  and  the  industries  of  his  community.  House- 
hold articles,  the  kitchen  processes,  the  hygienic  measures 
of  the  school,  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  garden,  farm,  and 
forest,  the  varied  occupations  of  the  community,  and  the  in- 
numerable machines  and  processes  by  which  these  are  carried 
on — all  claim  attention  and  demand  investigation.  A  study 
of  the  fundamental  industries  of  man,  especially  in  their 
primitive  form,  leading  up  to  their  present  development, 
affords  not  only  an  intelligent  grasp  of  the  social  industries, 
but  gives  an  historic  insight  into  their  development  which 
increases  the  social  value  of  the  information.  Moreover,  a 
rational  basis  is  laid  for  the  study  of  history  and  geography. 


THE  MOTIVE  5 

Geography  proper  furnishes  many  suggestions  for  nature 
lessons  and  also  provides  the  social  motive  again.  Numerous 
topics  of  human  interest  referred  to  in  this  subject  can  be 
explained  by  nature-study,  and  their  bearing  upon  life 
emphasized.  The  two  subjects  should  be  closely  correlated. 

Manual  training  and  domestic  science,  two  other  great 
socializing  studies  of  the  school,  are  dependent  upon  nature- 
study  for  many  explanations  of  materials  and  methods. 
There  is  a  need  to  know  the  properties  of  the  materials  and 
the  way  of  making  things.  The  value  of  nature-study  in 
this  case  is  apparent.  Here  the  knowledge  is  recognized 
not  as  an  end,  but  as  a  means  to  accomplish  something  to 
be  desired.  Simple  biology,  chemistry,  and  physics,  thus 
correlated  with  manual  training  and  domestic  economy,  are 
seen  to  have  much  to  do  with  human  affairs.  The  simple 
application  of  nature-study  in  this  way  in  school  leads  to  an 
appreciation  of  the  scientific  basis  of  our  sanitary  and 
economic  methods  of  the  home,  school,  and  community,  and 
our  complex  industrial  life  generally.  By  such  a  correlation 
these  "making"  subjects  are  enriched,  and  their  intellectual 
content  is  increased. 

Nature-study  has  a  satisfactory  raison  d'etre  for  the  child, 
if  presented  in  the  manner  suggested.  The  school  life  in  a 
measure  reflects  the  community  life  and  enables  him  to 
live  in  that  community  intelligently. 

But  the  child  is  interested  in  nature-study  in  another  way. 
The  social  interest  is  perhaps,  the  dominant  one;  but  anothei 
more  purely  intellectual  impulse  prevails.  This  is  the  out- 
come of  curiosity,  wonder — and  is  the  complement  of  the 
social  interest  in  bringing  him  into  right  relationship  with  the 
world. 


6  NATURE-STUDY 

The  child  wonders  about  the  objects  and  phenomena  of 
nature  r  he  is  curious  about  them,  perhaps  for  no  reason 
except  that  they  attract  his  attention.  He  feels  that  he  must 
know  what  and  why  these  things  are,  and  this  irrespective 
of  any  consideration  of  the  usefulness  or  applicability  of  the 
knowledge  to  himself  or  to  society.  In  much  the  same  way 
the  adult  scientist  craves  a  satisfying  explanation  of,  or  insight 
into,  many  facts  of  nature.  I  believe  this  powerful  impulse 
should  not  be  neglected  in  education,  though  it  may  be 
carried  too  far  and  lead  to  mere  book  learning,  with  a  disre- 
gard for  the  fact  that,  in  general,  knowledge  should  be  a  means 
and  not  an  end  in  itself.  Nevertheless,  this  knowledge  gained 
through  mere  curiosity,  though  not  always  practical,  affords 
much  satisfaction  and  pleasure.  It  is  the  basis  for  our  aesthetic 
and  spiritual  view  of  nature.  It  creates  a  certain  pleasant 
familiarity  with  nature,  and  on  one's  rambles  in  the  park  or 
in  the  country  makes  one  feel  en  rapport  with  it.  Through 
this  curiosity  we  learn  of  many  interesting  and  beautiful 
relations  in  the  natural  world.  We  find  that  a  unity  pre- 
vails and  we  discern  a  plan  more  or  less  clearly.  In  short, 
this  impulse  arising  from  curiosity  finally  places  the  indi- 
vidual in  harmony  with  the  natural  world  and  adds  in  a 
great  measure  to  general  culture. 

This  harmonizing  of  man  and  nature  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  education.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that 
much  of  this  knowledge  gained  from  curiosity  or — to  use 
another  expression — in  the  search  for  truth  may  later  be 
found  to  be  of  great,  perhaps  the  highest,  practical  value. 
Through  this  everlasting  spirit  of  inquiry  many  important 
facts  and  principles  have  been  discovered,  and  the  field  of 
human  vision  widened. 


THE   MOTIVE  7 

The  child  should  be  allowed  to  investigate  freely  in  nature 
whatever  his  interest  suggests.  This  sympathy  with  birds, 
insects,  plants,  and  even  inanimate  nature  is  one  of  the  most 
desirable  things  he  can  get  from  nature-study.  If  nothing 
more  it  ought  to  make  him  happier  in  this  wonderful  and 
beautiful  world. 

If  we  utilize  as  we  should  these  natural  interests  or  innate 
impulses  of  the  child,  we  have  enough  of  stimulus  or  motive 
to  vitalize  nature-study. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  NATURE-STUDY 

THE  child  should  be  given  such  educational  material  as 
suits  his  childhood  interests  and  needs.  This  does  not  mean 
to  let  him  learn  simply  what  he  likes  and  in  his  own  way. 
He  may  like  what  is  not  good  for  him.  The  experience  and 
wisdom  of  his  parents  and  teachers  must  be  used  in  shaping 
his  education.  The  child's  and  the  adult's  view  of  education 
need  not  be  incompatible.  The  child  should  be  so  educated 
as  to  live  as  completely  as  possible  his  transient  childhood 
years,  but  by  the  foresight  and  experience  of  his  elders  he 
may  also  receive  discipline  of  mind  and  character,  and  be 
supplied  with  the  knowledge  necessary  for  adult  life  as  well. 

When  the  mind  is  applied  to  the  study  of  natural  objects 
and  phenomena  all  its  powers  receive  some  discipline.  In 
the  first  place  there  is  the  power  of  observation,  perhaps  not 
the  highest  faculty,  and  yet  a  very  necessary  and  fundamental 
one.  For  through  the  power  of  perception  we  learn  of  things 
outside  of  ourselves.  An  infant  devoid  of  this  power  could 
not  develop  mentally.  But  this  is  the  first  faculty  exercised 
by  the  normal  child.  He  begins  in  the  cradle  to  observe 
things  by  touching,  hearing,  seeing,  tasting,  and  smelling 
them.  This  is  his  first  education.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  any  of  these  senses  can  be  made  keener  and  more  accurate 
by  practice.  Contrariwise  it  is  true  that  they  become  dulled 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  NATURE-STUDY   9 

by  disuse.  Since  the  senses  are  the  gateway  for  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  outer  world,  it  is  necessary  to  train  them  well 
We  must  learn  to  perceive  things  as  they  really  are.  Clear 
and  truthful  perceptions  are  the  basis  of  sound  thinking. 

But  observation  should  lead  to  thought.  The  mind 
should  be  receptive,  should  take  in  the  newly  observed  facts 
and  connect  them  with  what  is  already  known.  That  is, 
there  should  be  what  is  pedagogically  called  apperception, 
as  well  as  perception,  in  order  to  make  intellectual  progress, 
to  increase  the  sum  of  individual  knowledge. 

Now,  nature-study  is  especially  suitable  for  stimulating  and 
training  the  power  of  observation.  There  are  hosts  of  ani- 
mate and  inanimate  things  to  be  observed  and  thought  about. 
In  such  thinking  there  is  something  tangible  and  concrete. 
The  object  can  be  seen  and  handled,  perhaps.  Children 
are  not  mature  enough  for  much  abstract  thinking.  Hence 
object-study  is  more  suitable  for  them.  By  a  proper  selection 
of  material  and  proper  guidance,  the  child  may  be  made  more 
observant  of  natural  things  around  him,  to  his  lasting  benefit 
and  pleasure. 

In  the  education  of  our  children  we  seem  to  neglect  the 
hint  that  nature  herself  has  given  us.  Before  school-days 
begin  education  is  chiefly  through  observation.  The  founders 
of  the  kindergarten  taught  that  this  method  should  be  con- 
tinued in  the  school,  and  not  set  aside  by  the  use  of  books, 
as  is  so  generally  the  case.  Books  have  a  very  great  value, 
but  they  give  their  information  at  second  hand.  A  book  tells 
what  some  one  else  thinks  about  something,  and  no  reader 
of  such  a  book  can  get  as  vivid  or  perfect  a  knowledge  of 
the  thing  as  had  the  author,  who  learned  the  fact  first  hand. 
"Seeing  is  believing"  is  a  maxim  full  of  truth.  We  should 


io  NATURE-STUDY 

keep  up  the  spirit  of  personal  observation  and  investigation. 
If  this  is  not  done  the  child  is  too  apt  to  be  satisfied  with  mere 
statements  in  books  or  by  teachers,  and  too  ready  to  accept 
another's  opinion  as  his  own.  A  little  healtfiy  scepticism  in 
studying  is  a  good  thing,  especially  where  one  can  find  out 
for  himself  the  actual  facts.  Nature-study  aims  to  keep  alive 
the  inquiring  spirit. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  child  is  a  young  savage.  This  is 
true  in  several  respects.  Science  tells  us  that  an  animal  or 
a  plant  in  its  physical  development  passes  in  general  through 
the  stages  through  which  the  race  to  which  it  belongs  has 
passed  in  its  development.  For  example,  in  the  embryology 
of  the  frog  there  is  a  stage  that  is  like  the  fish — the  tadpole 
stage.  Other  facts  prove  the  origin  of  frogs  from  fish-like 
ancestors.  Every  frog  repeats  this  fish-like  stage. 

It  has  become  an  educational  maxim  that  the  mental 
evolution  of  a  child  corresponds  in  a  measure  to  the  mental 
evolution  of  the  race  to  which  he  belongs.  That  is,  the  child 
exhibits  mental  traits  that  were  once  characteristic  of  his 
race  when  in  the  primitive  state.  In  pedagogy  we  hear 
this  spoken  of  as  the  Culture  Epoch  Theory,  and  though  it  is 
not  fully  worked  out  in  its  applications,  this  theory  is  already 
useful  in  education.  We  cannot  safely  change  the  course 
of  nature  in  the  development  of  mind  or  body.  It  is  better 
to  take  a  suggestion  from  nature  and  to  work  with,  rather 
than  against,  her. 

A  young  child,  though  he  may  not  show  his  savagery  in 
cruelty,  nevertheless  shows  his  interests  to  be  chiefly  in  ob- 
jective things — in  people,  human  activities,  and  natural 
objects.  Children  are  proverbially  inquisitive  regarding 
natural  objects.  In  childhood  are  formed  the  attachments 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   VALUE   OF   NATURE-STUDY     n 

to  pets.  Boys  are  interested  in  hunting,  fishing,  and 
outdoor  sports,  and  like  to  play  Indians.  Children  also 
like  birds  and  plants.  Their  nature-love  seems  to  be  in- 
stinctive, and  is  probably  an  inheritance  from  their  savage, 
nature-loving  ancestry. 

Then  let  us  give  the  child  opportunity  to  taste  nature  as 
much  as  possible,  and  use  this  inherent  interest  to  teach  him 
about  his  natural  environment.  Repeat  the  old  story. 
Teach  him  the  good  things  he  can  use  and  enjoy  and  the 
bad  things  that  he  should  avoid. 

Mathematics  gives  the  mind  excellent  training  in  abstract 
thinking  and  familiarizes  the  mind  with  logical  processes. 
But  nature-study  also  trains  the  reasoning  powers.  The 
reasoning  afforded  by  science  in  general  is  not  abstract,  but 
more  concrete  and  more  like  the  reasoning  of  every-day  life. 
In  nature-study  a  child  observes  a  number  of  facts,  or  a 
series  of  phenomena,  and  from  them  makes  a  generalization 
or  conclusion.  He  learns  the  principle  of  cause  and  effect. 
He  sees  that  things  are  not  left  to  chance,  but  that  the  rule 
of  cause  and  effect  governs  all  action.  He  learns  to  apply 
this  rule  in  other  fields  of  thought,  in  literature,  history,  civics, 
politics,  and  personal  conduct.  The  comparison  and  classi- 
fication of  natural  objects  give  an  excellent  training  in 
systematic  thought.  The  derivation  of  laws  from  experi- 
ments or  observations  affords  the  best  of  practice  in  induc- 
tive reasoning,  .  while  deduction  is  employed  in  every 
application  of  these  laws. 

By  imagination  the  facts  once  learned  are  recalled  and 
brought  into  new  relations.  In  this  new  relation  they  com- 
bine to  form  new  ideas  or  to  suggest  new  thoughts.  By  un- 
restricted exercise  of  the  power  of  imagination  mental  prod- 


12  NATURE-STUDY 

ucts  can  be  formed  that  have  no  counterpart  in  reality. 
The  result  may  be  pure  fancy.  Although  this  may  be  legiti- 
mate in  literature  and  art,  it  has  no  place  in  science.  In  the 
search  for  truth  the  imagination  should  be  watched  lest  it 
lead  astray.  In  science-study  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  and  also,  which  is  important,  the  control  of 
the  imagination.  "Of  all  the  powers  of  the  mind  it  is  cer- 
tainly that  which  is  most  important  in  giving  originality  to 
the  results  of  thought,"  say  Hall  and  Smith.1  "But  in  pro- 
portion to  its  value  and  activity  is  the  difficulty  of  controlling 
its  operations.  The  imagination  is  a  good  servant  but  a 
bad  master.  The  opportunity  which  is  offered  in  experi- 
mental science  to  test  the  results  of  imagination  by  com- 
parison, again  and  again  renewed,  with  the  concrete  materials 
with  which  it  has  been  dealing,  furnishes  an  unrivalled 
opportunity  to  practise  and  control  it."  While  the  above 
applies  especially  to  the  maturer  study  of  the  sciences  it  also 
applies  in  nature-study.  Children  love  to  theorize  if  given 
the  chance,  and  they  should  be  taught  to  check  their  imagina- 
tion with  the  facts  before  them. 

Many  people  cannot  appreciate  the  value  of  mental  training 
merely  for  the  sake  of  sharpening  the  wits,  and  decry  all 
education  that  cannot  be  applied  directly  to  the  earning  of 
dollars  and  cents.  "What  is  the  use  of  such  learning?" 
they  ask.  This  is  a  practical  generation,  and  education 
must  meet  the  practical  test  of  every-day  life.  If  any  subject 
has  practical  value  it  is  natural  science,  for  through  it  we 
become  better  acquainted  with  our  environment.  Man  will 
never  be  free  from  the  natural  conditions  that  now  affect  his 
life.  He  will  always  need  food,  clothing,  and  shelter;  he 

i"  Teaching  of  Physics  and  Chemistry,"  p.  n. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE   OF  NATURE-STUDY    13 

will  need  to  make  implements  and  tools  to  furnish  these; 
he  will  want  conveniences  and  pleasures  above  his  animal 
needs;  he  will  be  subject  to  disease  and  physical  accidents, 
and  will  need  to  prevent  or  remedy  them.  These  stern  neces- 
sities he  can  meet  only  if  he  knows  how  to  do  so.  The  better 
he  understands  the  laws  of  nature,  the  better  knowledge 
he  has  of  the  properties  and  uses  of  plants  and  animals 
and  the  products  of  nature,  the  better  he  can  distinguish 
between  the  good  and  the  bad  natural  agencies,  so  much 
better  will  he  be  able  to  live  without  cold,  hunger,  pain,  and 
fear.  As  long  as  he  acts  in  accordance  with  natural  laws, 
all  is  well;  but  he  is  punished  for  the  slightest  transgres- 
sions. This  is  seen  most  obviously  in  the  matter  of  hygiene. 
More  people  die  through  ignorance  of  the  laws  of  health 
than  are  destroyed  in  wars. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  ESTHETIC  AND  ETHICAL  VALUE  OF  NATURE-STUDY 

KNOWLEDGE  is  power.  It  is  also  pleasure  or  affords 
pleasure.  Many  students  learn  for  the  mere  pleasure  of 
learning.  This  is  the  case  of  the  scientist  who  discovers  the 
laws  of  nature  or  proves  a  theory,  without  a  thought  of  their 
practical  application.  Even  a  child  in  the  satisfaction  of 
his  curiosity  has  a  similar  feeling. 

But  we  can  get  sweet  and  helpful  pleasure  also  from 
the  sensuous  enjoyment  of  the  beauty  of  nature's  forms  and 
colors,  the  songs  of  birds  and  the  sound  of  running  waters, 
the  fragrance  of  the  flowers  and  the  smell  of  the  earth  and 
sea,  the  delicious  flavor  of  fruit,  the  warmth  of  the  genial 
sunshine,  the  touch  of  our  feet  on  the  ground,  or  the  feel  of 
the  earth  as  we  lie  upon  it.  These  pleasures  of  the  senses, 
though  not  the  higher  kind,  should  not  be  neglected.  With- 
out them  life  would  be  much  more  matter-of-fact  and  un- 
interesting. Just  as  it  is  right  to  enjoy  sensuously  good 
music  or  the  lines  and  coloring  of  a  beautiful  work  of  art, 
and  as  it  is  right  to  train  the  ear  for  music  and  the  eye  to 
discriminate  beauty  in  art,  just  so  is  it  right  for  us  to  enjoy 
nature  through  the  senses,  and  to  cultivate  them  so  that  we 
may  enjoy  more  fully  and  intelligently.  These  animal  sensa- 
tions of  the  charms  of  nature  add  immensely  to  the  pleasure 
of  living,  and,  directly  or  indirectly,  affect  our  views  of  life. 

14 


ESTHETIC  AND  ETHICAL  VALUE  15 

Nature-study  has  perhaps  been  the  chief  factor  in  the 
culture  development  of  the  human  race.  At  first  man  was 
the  fearful  slave  of  nature,  seeking  a  precarious  existence, 
struggling  blindly  with  natural  forces.  Then  he  became 
nature's  pupil.  By  observation  of  the  creatures  about  him 
and  by  personal  experience  he  learned  to  adapt  himself  better 
to  his  environment.  The  more  he  learned  the  better  fitted 
he  became  for  life,  and  the  more  his  mind  expanded.  Simple 
inventions  of  tools,  the  domestication  of  animals,  and  the 
cultivation  of  plants  soon  made  the  slave  the  master,  so  that 
to-day  man  takes  advantage  of  his  environment,  utilizes  the 
resources  of  nature,  and  even  directs  her  course  very  largely 
for  his  own  ends. 

As  children  of  to-day  personify,  so  primitive  man  attempted 
to  explain  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  nature  about  him  by 
personifying  the  mysterious  forces  that  so  powerfully  affected 
his  life.  Thus  mythology  and  religion  had  their  origin. 
The  ideas  awakened  by,  and  the  pleasures  derived  from, 
nature  have  had  very  much  to  do  with  the  development  of 
poetry,  music,  painting,  and  sculpture. 

Our  relations  with  nature  are  of  long  standing.  The  de- 
pendence of  our  forefathers  on  the  forest,  the  sea,  the  wild 
animals,  and  the  elements  has  been  deeply  impressed  upon 
the  human  race,  so  that  even  many  generations  of  artificial 
urban  life  have  not  entirely  obliterated  our  nature  instinct,— 
the  impulse  that .  leads  us  back  to  nature.  In  many  this 
instinct  is  very  pronounced  and  needs  but  little  encourage- 
ment. In  others  it  is  less  developed  and  may  entirely  disap- 
pear from  persistent  disuse.  It  should,  however,  be  developed 
into  the  habit  of  active  and  discriminating  observation  and 
the  correct  interpretation  of  nature. 


16  NATURE-STUDY 

Children  generally  display  this  nature  instinct  more  than 
adults,  though  not  as  much  as  many  adults.  The  child 
likes  the  pretty  colored  insects,  leaves,  and  birds.  He 
likes  to  play  in  the  earth,  and  to  frolic  with  pets  and  wild 
animals.  The  sympathy  for  pets  and,  through  them,  for  other 
creatures  is  one  of  the  finest  things  we  can  teach  through 
nature-study.  The  child  is  greatly  interested  in  the  animals 
of  the  farm,  in  their  uses  and  care.  He  likes  flowers  and 
fruit,  and  can  be  readily  taught  to  care  for  growing  plants. 
There  is  an  aesthetic  and  a  moral  as  well  as  an  educational 
element  in  the  cultivation  of  potted  plants,  trees,  gardens, 
etc.  Children  love  to  roam  about  in  the  fields  and  forests 
and  enjoy  the  mystery  of  their  numberless  discoveries. 
They  like  to  be  on  the  water,  or  in  it.  They  like  to  fish,  hunt, 
and  camp.  They  like  to  play  the  primitive  life  of  the  Indian 
or  the  pioneer. 

Later,  as  imagination  and  knowledge  develop,  comes  the 
enjoyment  of  scenery,  the  landscape,  the  sea,  and  sky  effects ; 
later,  also,  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  adaptations  and 
interrelations  in  nature.  Then,  too,  come  the  perception 
and  admiration  of  natural  forces  and  the  laws  according  to 
which  they  act,  and  the  attempts  to  see  a  unity  and  a  guidance 
in  the  universe.  Enjoyment  of  nature  becomes  more  and 
more  conscious.  Personal  applications  are  made  of  nature's 
principles.  We  try  to  fit  into  the  world-scheme  — and  our 
religious  and  philosophical  interests  develop. 

Much  may  be  done  to  cultivate  in  children  a  love  for 
nature.  Bring  the  child  often  in  contact  with  nature,  and 
let  her  silent  influences  work.  Let  him  be  taken  on  field 
trips  to  enjoy  the  beauty  of  the  flowers,  the  birds,  etc.  Point 
out  these  things  to  the  children  who  fail  to  see  for  themselves. 


.ESTHETIC  AND  ETHICAL  VALUE  17 

Call  attention  to  the  changing  beauty  of  the  landscape. 
Let  the  children  tell  what  they  enjoy  in  it.  Point  out  more, 
if  they  are  old  enough  to  appreciate  it.  Show  them  the 
play  of  light  and  shade,  the  harmony  of  the  colors,  the  sub- 
dued hues,  the  neutral  tints  of  forest  and  meadow,  of  moun- 
tain and  fading  perspectives.  The  sky,  with  its  varying 
cloud  effects  and  changing  light  and  color  from  sunrise  to 
sunset,  in  calm  and  in  storm,  should  appeal  to  all.  The 
teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  go  into  rhapsodies  over  these 
beautiful  phenomena,  but  should  simply  seek  to  remind 
the  child  of  them,  and  to  point  out  those  features  missed  by 
the  children  themselves.  It  is  well  to  remember  in  this 
appreciation  of  nature  that  much  depends  upon  the  attitude 
and  mood  of  the  observer.  The  teacher  should  try  first  to 
bring  herself  and  her  pupils  into  the  proper  receptive  or  sym- 
pathetic attitude. 

Poets  of  all  ages  have  felt  the  influences  of  nature,  and 
have  interpreted  it  for  others,  or  have  -sho^n  them  its  gran- 
deur, beauty,  and  mystery.  Their  works  are  especially 
enjoyed  by  those  who  love  nature  themselves  and  have  had 
similar  experiences.  Others  learn  from  them  what  to  look 
for  and  enjoy. 

There  is  a  great  wealth  of  prose  and  poetry  that  may  be 
used  judiciously  in  developing  in  children  an  appreciative 
spirit  toward  nature.  Thus,  occasionally,  interest  may  be 
aroused  in  a  nature  lesson  by  first  reading  some  selection 
suitable  for  the  occasion.  Or,  perhaps  better,  after  the  nature 
lesson  such  selections  used  in  the  reading  lesson  would 
bring  out  a  human  aspect,  or  an  aesthetic  or  spiritual  element. 
The  poems  of  Wordsworth,  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Celia 
Thaxter,  and  F.  D.  Sherman,  and  the  prose  of  Emerson, 


i8  NATURE-STUDY 

Warner,  Burroughs,  Torrey,  VanDyke,  E.  T.  Seton,  W.  J. 
Long,  and  many  others,  if  read  by  the  pupils  cannot  fail  to 
develop  somewhat  the  appreciation  of  nature. 

The  Ethical  and  Spiritual  Side  oj  Nature-Study 

There  is  an  ethical  element  in  nature-study.  The  search 
lor  and  recognition  of  truth  in  nature-study  has  a  definite 
moral  tendency.  All  great  scientists  have  a  high  ideal  of 
truth.  Nature-study,  by  constantly  checking  the  thought 
by  the  actual  facts,  tends  toward  intellectual  honesty.  Again, 
the  rule  of  cause  and  effect  exemplified  so  concretely  in 
nature-study,  when  applied  to  personal  and  social  relations, 
tends  strongly  toward  moral  improvement. 

It  is  customary  to  teach  children  about  animal  wisdom, 
providence,  care  and  love  for  the  young,  etc.  These  things, 
no  doubt,  are  interesting  to  children  as  reflecting  their  own 
home  life,  and  some  moral  benefit  is  derived  therefrom; 
but  one  of  the  b%st  things  they  get  from  nature-study  is  a 
sympathy  and  love  for  the  lower  animals.  The  care  for 
pets  is  good  nature-study  and  also  good  moral  training,  for 
it  teaches  us  to  consider  the  wants  of  these  animals.  Chil- 
dren, however,  should  be  taught  to  be  kind  also  to  the  birds, 
the  squirrels,  frogs  and  toads,  instead  of  cruel  as  they  so 
often  are.  They  should  be  taught  to  recognize  the  right  of 
all  harmless  creatures  to  live.  They  should  be  made  to  feel 
that  we  and  the  animals  are  kin. 

The  raising  of  plants  and  the  cultivation  of  a  garden  also 
may  teach  regularity,  watchfulness,  patience,  and  persistence. 
Lovers  of  plants  show  an  almost  affectionate  interest  in  their 
development.  Flower  culture  develops  a  gentleness  of  spirit 
in  the  children  who  practise  it.  Many  believe  a  boy  cannot 


AESTHETIC  AND  ETHICAL  VALUE  19 

become  a  vagabond  and  criminal  if  he  has  been  taught 
to  love  the  cultivation  of  plants. 

The  study  of  nature  has  another  very  important  moral 
aspect.  Ignorance  is  a  kind  of  immorality,  especially  where 
people  ought  to,  or  could,  have  known  better.  Through 
ignorance  and,  perhaps,  absolute  disregard  for  simple  natural 
laws  there  result  much  loss  and  trouble. 

Farmers  try  to  raise  crops  and  cattle  on  unsuitable  land 
and  in  unsuitable  climate,  or  they  fail  because  of  improper  or 
ignorant  treatment.  A  vast  amount  of  fuel  is  lost  in  smoke, 
in  radiation,  and  in  friction,  which  should  be  saved.  Through 
improvident  and  ruthless  lumbering  methods,  our  country  is 
being  denuded  of  its  forests,  and  our  timber  supply  is  being 
exhausted.  Through  the  wanton  and  cruel  destruction  of 
beneficial  birds,  insect  pests  are  multiplying  to  the  injury  of 
our  gardens  and  fields.  There  is  a  waste  in  the  household 
economy  in  the  choice  and  the  cooking  of  food.  Devastating 
fires  and  appalling  accidents  occur  with  great  consequent  loss 
of  life  and  property.  In  all  these  cases  a  proper  study  of, 
and  regard  for,  the  laws  of  nature  would  do  much  to  prevent 
or  remedy  the  evil. 

Sanitation  and  disease  are  matters  of  such  social  concern 
that  in  every  enlightened  community  general  laws  are  passed 
respecting  them.  The  individual  must  submit  to  society  in 
these  matters,  for  he  may  spread  disease  far  and  wide.  So 
we  have  quarantine  and  sanitary  laws  by  which  contagious 
diseases  are  kept  in  check.  Much  disease  is  caused  through 
pure  ignorance.  Bacteria  are  allowed  to  develop  among  filth, 
and  to  contaminate  food,  to  infect  persons,  and  to  cause  epi- 
demic disease.  In  India  pilgrims,  some  of  them  diseased,  per- 
haps with  cholera,  come  to  bathe  in  and  drink  of  the  water  of 


20  NATURE-STUDY 

the  sacred  pools,  and  then  go  home  carrying  with  them  the 
germs  of  disease  to  many  regions.  A  scourge  of  cholera  is  the 
result.  And  what  is  the  cause  of  all  this  ?  Pure  ignorance. 
Such  ignorance  in  an  enlightened  country  is  not  only  wrong, 
but  immoral.  Statutes  even  make  it  criminal  to  violate  the 
rules  of  the  boards  of  health.  All  this  goes  to  show  that  there 
is  a  great  social  interest  in  nature-study  that  will  teach  people 
how  to  live  a  self-supporting,  safe,  and  healthy  life.  For 
people  who  cannot  do  this  become  public  charges  or  menace 
the  public  welfare. 

The  study  of  the  wonderful  things  of  the  world,  their 
beautiful  fitness  for  their  existence  and  functions,  the  re- 
markable progressive  tendency  of  all  organic  life,  and  the 
unity  that  prevails  in  it  create  admiration  in  the  beholder  and 
tend  to  his  spiritual  uplifting.  He  feels  a  greater  reverence 
for  the  wonderful  universe  and  its  mysterious  forces.  He  is 
compelled  to  think  of  the  Why  and  the  Wherefore  of  it  all, 
and  he  must  think  of  the  Great  First  Cause. 

The  contemplation  of  nature,  the  works  of  God,  naturally 
tends  to  make  one  believe  in  an  all-planning  and  all-guiding 
Influence. 

The  all-pervading  and  controlling  Force  in  nature  is  seen 
in  the  star,  in  the  work  of  the  elements,  in  the  pearly  nautilus, 
in  the  flower.  If  we  knew  the  ultimate  meaning  of  all  or 
each  we  might  have  the  key  to  existence.  That  is  what 
Tennyson  meant  when  he  wrote 

Flower  in  the  crannied  wall, 
I  pluck  you  out  of  the  crannies; — 
Hold  you  here,  root  and  all,  in  my  hand, 
Little  flower;  but  if  I  could  understand 
What  you  are,  root  and  all,  and  all  in  all, 
I  should  know  what  God  and  man  is. 


CHAPTER  IV 
STUDYING  NATURE  IN  THE  GRADES— HOW  AND  WHAT 

THERE  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  for  studying  nature  in 
the  grades.  It  would  be  better  not  to  have  any  set  lessons 
at  all,  if  the  formal  lessons  only  tired  the  children  and  de- 
stroyed their  interest.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  formal 
lesson  in  nature-study  may  not  be  highly  interesting  and 
inspiring  in  the  hands  of  an  able  and  enthusiastic  teacher. 
It  can,  and  more  lasting  results  in  the  way  of  definite  -knowl- 
edge and  training  in  thinking  can  be  given  by  such  formal 
lessons  than  by  the  informal. 

A  teacher  of  nature-study  should  ever  be  observant  of 
nature,  and  should  call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  such 
things  as  they  are  prepared  to  grasp.  If  a  teacher  sees  the 
first  robin  in  spring,  let  her  speak  of  it  in  school  and  ask 
the  children  to  be  on  the  watch.  If  she  finds  an  interesting 
flower,  a  stone,  or  insect,  let  her  show  it  to  the  pupils  and 
tell  them  about  it.  This  can  often  be  done  at  recess  or  before 
or  after  school,  or  a  few  moments  may  be  taken  daily  or  occa- 
sionally in  the  general  period  for  such  informal  observations  of 
nature.  In  this  way  call  attention  to  the  changing  pictures 
of  the  seasons,  the  return  of  the  birds,  the  spring  flowers,  the 
brook,  the  insect  life,  the  rain  and  the  snow  flake,  the  eclipse, 
the  stars,  etc.  Name  for  the  children  the  plants  and  the  animals 
they  see.  Let  them  bring  in  "specimens "  of  all  kinds  and  use 


22  NATURE-STUDY 

them  as  texts  in  nature  lessons.  In  these  informal  lessons  let 
the  pupils  talk  as  much  as  they  can  or  will  about  the  object. 

In  the  primary  grades  the  nature  material  is  chiefly  studied 
from  a  different  motive  than  in  the  higher.  Here  its  main 
purpose  is  to  develop  expression  and  to  cultivate  the  observ- 
ing powers.  Oral  and  written  language  and  art  are  largely 
taught  with  it.  The  informational  side  is  mainly  iden- 
tification and  getting  introduced  to  nature.  Structural 
details  and  functions  should  be  minimized,  though  not  en- 
tirely omitted.  For  these  reasons  the  method  of  presenting 
nature  lessons  in  these  grades  is  much  more  informal  than  in 
upper  grades.  It  is  more  conversational,  and  more  sponta- 
neous or  unsolicited  expression  is  expected  from  the  children. 
Let  them  tell  in  their  own  way  what  they  see  or  know  about 
the  object.  Habits  and  uses  appeal  more  to  the  little  children 
than  descriptions  of  structure  and  appearance.  And,  yet, 
enough  for  identification  should  be  done  with  these. 

As  the  children  are  allowed  more  freedom  to  express  them- 
selves, the  plan  of  a  lesson  should  not  be  so  systematically 
carried  out  as  would  be  the  case  in  higher  grades.  The 
teacher  will  have  to  be  governed  largely  by  the  turn  taken 
by  the  interests  of  the  children.  Still,  there  can  be  consider- 
able guidance  in  the  observations,  by  asking  questions  or 
showing  points.  As  the  children  get  older  more  system  can 
be  demanded.  Frequently  things  need  not  be  studied  with 
any  formality  whatever.  Children  gain  a  good  deal  by  just 
looking  at  a  fish  in  an  aquarium,  or  a  butterfly  on  a  flower, 
without  any  directions  or  questions  from  the  teacher.  Many 
things  on  a  field-trip  may  thus  be  observed  in  this  very  in- 
formal manner.  Perhaps  this  is  especially  good  where  the 
beauty  of  nature  is  the  chief  item  of  interest.  Sometimes 


STUDYING  NATURE  IN  THE   GRADES  23 

an  object  may  simply  be  shown  to  the  children,  and  a 
story,  anecdote,  or  poem  read  or  told  by  the  teacher  about 
it.  Such  informal  methods  are  interesting  variations  of 
the  usual  method  of  presentation.  In  general,  however, 
the  half  informal,  conversational  development  method  is  better 
— the  pupil  as  well  as  the  teacher  asking  questions.  As  the 
children  grow  stronger  the  teacher  should  tell  less  and  ask 
more.  She  should  direct  observation  along  more  definite  lines, 
and  see  more  to  the  relations  and  the  unity  of  the  lesson. 

A  definite  course  of  instruction,  however,  requires  a  little 
more  system  and  formality,  and  so  does  the  usual  drill  work. 
Hence,  where  the  time  can  be  afforded,  and  it  should  be 
everywhere,  daily,  semi-weekly,  or  weekly  formal  lessons 
should  be  given  on  nature  subjects.1 

In  the  regular  lessons  the  development  plan  is  generally 
followed.  This  method  is  the  application  of  the  rule: 
"  Don't  tell  a  child  what  he  can  find  out  for  himself."  A  lesson 
should  stimulate  thought.  The  teacher  by  skilful  question- 
ing directs  the  attention  of  the  child  to  the  facts  he  can  easily 
observe  and  then  asks  him  to  make  his  own  conclusion. 
This  method,  known  as  the  Development  Method,  is  espe- 
cially suitable  for  nature-study.  In  this  we  have,  or  should 
have,  the  actual  object  or  phenomenon  before  the  pupil. 
It  is  true  that  too  many  nature  lessons,  or  so-called  object 
lessons,  are  given  without  the  object  present. 

The  scientific  method  of  study  is :  Do  not  take  things  for 
granted,  but  find  out  for  yourself.  This  method  trains 
pupils  to  think  for  themselves.  Too  much  talking  by  the 
teacher  allows  the  pupils'  minds  to  lie  idle  and  passive. 
Exercise  strengthens  them. 

1  See  page  397  for  course  of  study. 


24  NATURE-STUDY 

As  a  general  rule  pupils  need  not  be  told  beforehand 
what  a  certain  nature  lesson  is  to  be  about,  for  it  is  gener- 
ally studied  in  class  and  *not  before.  The  recitation  is 
really  a  study  period,  and  all  the  children  should  partake 
in  the  work.  All  should  get  the  facts  brought  out.  This 
will  require  more  or  less  drill  and  summarizing,  as  in  other 
lessons.  Occasionally  pupils  may  be  asked  to  make  certain 
preliminary  observations  which  are  to  be  utilized  in  the  suc- 
ceeding development  lesson. 

Nature-study  requires  no  text-book  for  the  pupils  except 
the  great  book  of  nature  herself.  The  lessons  in  school 
may,  however,  be  supplemented  with  outside  reading. 

The  Development  Lesson 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  TEACHER  FOR  THE  LESSON.     It 

is  not  well  to  rely  entirely  on  the  inspiration  of  the  moment  in 
teaching  nature  lessons,  any  more  than  in  any  other  subject, 
such  as  geography  and  arithmetic.  Of  course  the  teacher 
should  possess  adaptability  and  be  able  to  change  her  plan  of 
recitation  quickly  and  easily  if  the  occasion  so  requires.  But 
a  nature  lesson  requires  preparation,  just  as  the  above-men- 
tioned subjects.  One  chief  reason  for  the  failure  of  so  much 
nature-study  is  the  lack  of  thorough  preparation  by  the 
teacher. 

We  will  assume  that  the  subject  of  the  lesson  is  well  chosen, 
that  it  is  not  some  trivial  matter,  but  is  adapted  to  the 
grade  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  that  there  is  some  definite 
purpose  in  presenting  it.  The  subject  being  decided  upon, 
the  teacher  must  then  think  of  what  she  wishes  to  teach  about 
it — whether  it  is  to  be  merely  a  description  of  the  qualities 
of  the  object,  its  classification,  or  a  discussion  of  its  uses,  etc. 


STUDYING  NATURE   IN  THE   GRADES  25 

She  must  plan  this  out  more  or  less  fully.  Beginners  had 
better  write  out  such  descriptions,  or  the  steps  of  a  classifica- 
tion, or  whatever  the  matter  of  the  lesson  is  to  be.  This 
matter  must  be  logically  arranged  and  not  thrown  together 
without  any  connection.  More  proficient  teachers  may  be 
satisfied  with  simply  thinking  out  the  matter  and  jotting 
down  an  outline  memorandum  of  it. 

It  is  well  also  to  put  into  this  lesson  plan  or  guide  such 
points  on  the  method  of  presenting  the  matter  as  will  seem 
useful,  special  forms  of  questions,  hints  on  the  best  explana- 
tions, and  reference  to  the  use  of  the  illustrative  material. 

The  subject-matter  should  be  neither  too  trivial  nor  too 
abstruse  for  the  class.  The  previous  knowledge  that  the  chil- 
dren may  have  of  the  thing  to  be  studied  should  also  be  taken 
into  account  in  making  out  the  plan  of  the  lesson.  Again, 
the  amount  of  matter  or  the  number  of  points  to  be  brought 
out  should  be  proportioned  to  the  length  of  the  period  for 
the  lesson.  If  there  is  too  little  matter,  time  will  be  wasted 
in  useless  repetition,  and  if  there  is  too  much  matter  the  whole 
of  it  cannot  be  completed,  or  all  or  parts  of  it  must  be  slighted, 
and  the  lesson  is  not  well  fixed.  Another  point  should  be 
remembered  in  teaching  nature-study:  Do  not  think  you 
are  teaching  nature-study  when  the  lesson  is  simply  about 
scientific  definitions,  such  as  veins,  midrib,  petiole,  dentate, 
crenate,  etc.  That  is  simply  word-study,  not  nature-study. 
Teach  facts,  not  words. 

A  very  necessary  part  of  the  teacher's  preparation  is  the 
selection  and  getting  together  of  the  illustrative  material  for 
the  lesson,  such  as  the  object  itself,  or  parts  of  it,  pictures,  ex- 
periments, and  stories.  They  should  be  chosen  with  reference 
to  their  fitness  to  illustrate  the  lesson.  The  matter  should  be 


26  NATURE-STUDY 

planned  as  if  derived  from  a  study  of  the  illustrative  material, 
for  that  is  what  the  children  must  do  in  the  recitation. 

GIVING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  LESSON.  The  teacher  is  fore- 
armed with  a  well  thought  out  lesson  plan.  If  the  lesson  is  not 
particularly  related  to  preceding  ones,  it  may  be  introduced 
by  a  few  bright  remarks  about  the  object  to  be  studied,  to 
awaken  the  interest  and  direct  the  attention  of  the  children. 
Perhaps  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  some  experiences  of  the 
pupils  with  the  object.  It  is  always  well  to  form  a  basis  of 
previous  knowledge  for  the  new  facts  to  be  acquired.  If 
this  is  done,  and  the  new  knowledge  properly  related  or 
connected  with  the  old,  it  is  more  apt  to  stay  with  the  learners. 
If  there  have  been  previous  related  lessons,  then  quickly  and 
briefly  call  to  mind  some  of  the  essential  facts  of  those  lessons, 
such  as  are  to  be  made  use  of  in  the  new  lesson  or  are  needed 
as  a  basis.  The  basis  having  been  established,  the  new  lesson 
is  then  presented. 

In  the  development  method  this  is  done  by  showing  the  ob- 
ject or  other  illustrations,  and  by  means  of  questions  directing 
the  observation  of  the  pupils  in  such  a  way  that  they  see  for 
themselves,  or  reason  out  for  themselves  from  these  observa- 
tions, all  the  points  the  teacher  had  planned  to  bring  out. 

This  questioning  is  an  art.  Hit  or  miss  questions  without 
any  definite  order  will  leave  the  knowledge  gained  by  the  pupil 
in  a  chaotic  state,  from  which  he  cannot  see  many  relations 
or  make  the  generalizations  he  should.  Therefore,  follow  the 
outline  of  the  lesson  plan  and  thus  ask  the  questions  and 
direct  the  observations  in  an  orderly  fashion,  and  then  from 
their  logical  order  the  pupils  can  easily  make  the  inferences 
required. 

Of  course  the  information  could  be  imparted  more  quickly 


STUDYING   NATURE   IN  THE   GRADES  27 

and  easily  by  the  lecture  method.  But  a  nature  lesson  should 
be  a  mental  discipline.  In  a  lecture  the  listener  is  more  or  less 
passive  mentally,  and  often  fails  to  absorb  fully  and  to  retain 
the  facts  heard.  But  facts  acquired  through  personal  effort 
are  apt  to  be  remembered  longer,  chiefly  because  they  are 
better  understood.  Furthermore,  the  practice  simply  in 
observing,  comparing,  and  reasoning  out  laws  and  classifica- 
tions is  a  good  thing. 

If  the  development  method  is  properly  applied  it  stimulates 
individual  mental  effort  in  the  pupils  and  tends  to  accurate 
observation  and  logical  reasoning.  But  there  is  a  danger  in 
using  this  method  of  instruction  that  it  may  be  so  mechani- 
cally applied  that  it  sets  the  pupils'  minds  going  only  for  a 
thought  or  so,  and  then  they  sit  and  wait  for  another  mental 
jog  in  the  form  of  a  question  from  the  teacher.  Do  not  destroy 
in  the  children  the  power  of  initiative  in  thought.  Counteract, 
if  necessary,  by  requiring  more  extended  description  or  more 
extended  reasoning  from  the  pupils  without  prompting 
questions,  and  also  by  varying  the  method  -of  presenta- 
tion; for  it  need  by  no  means  always  be  the  development 
method. 

Frequently  in  nature  lessons  it  is  necessary  to  classify 
objects.  The  comparison  of  different  objects,  and  the  finding 
of  likenesses  and  differences  by  means  of  which  the -objects 
are  grouped  is  excellent  mental  practice  for  the  children. 
This  comparison  may  be  made  at  the  close  of  the  study  of 
the  new  object,  or  it  may  be  made  all  along  during  the  pres- 
entation, point  for  point.  The  first  method  better  empha- 
sizes the  comparison  and  tends  to  make  the  classification 
more  effective. 

Even  primary  children  should  do  more  or  less  of  this. 


28  NATURE-STUDY 

They  can  easily  see  that  the  fox  is  like  the  dog,  both  in  struct- 
ure and  in  habits,  and  they  will  naturally  group  them  to- 
gether. But  have  them  also  note  the  essential  differences 
that  make  one  animal  a  dog  and  the  other  a  fox.  The  more 
common  type,  the  dog,  should  be  studied  first.  Then,  in 
studying  the  fox,  compare  his  head  with  that  of  the  dog; 
then  the  teeth,  the  feet,  and  the  habits,  as  these  points  are 
brought  out  in  the  developed  description  of  the  fox.  Or 
wait  until  the  fox  description  is  finished  and  then  compare. 
Sometimes  a  superficial  resemblance  of  two  objects  resolves 
itself  after  comparison  into  wide  differences.  For  instance, 
most  people  call  the  chimney-swift  a  swallow.  But  a  careful 
comparison  shows  that  the  birds  belong  to  different  groups. 
The  comparison  of  physical  phenomena,  such  as  conduction 
and  convection,  is  good  practice  and  leads  to  clearer  reason- 
ing. Comparison  is. a  necessary  step  where  classification  is 
desired.  , 

Sometimes  all  the  facts  developed  in  a  nature  lesson  are 
considered  together,  and  some  generalization  is  derived  from 
them.  Comparison  of  several  objects  or  facts  leads  to  classi- 
fication, a  kind  of  generalization.  But  sometimes  a  general 
principle  is  involved  in  a  number  of  illustrations  or  experi- 
ments, and  this  the  children  are  to  think  out.  Thus,  a 
number  of  experiments  in  heat  may  all  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  heat  causes  expansion. 

When  such  generalizations  have  been  made,  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  think  of  applications  of  the  principle 
in  new  cases.  Thus,  after  deriving  the  principle  of  expansion 
by  heat,  let  the  pupils  apply  this  principle  to  such  cases  as 
the  setting  of  wagon  tires,  the  gap  between  the  rails,  the 
thermometer,  etc.  This  fixes  the  principle  better  in  the 


STUDYING  NATURE  IN  THE   GRADES  29 

pupils'  minds  and  shows  the  practical  bearing  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

The  permanency  of  the  knowledge  acquired  depends 
partly  upon  the  interest  in  the  subject,  and  also  upon  the 
repetition  of  the  act  of  learning — that  is,  upon  drill.  This  is 
as  true  of  nature-study  as  it  is  of  the  multiplication  table. 
And  a  nature  lesson  is  not  thoroughly  finished  when  the  facts 
have  been  brought  out  only  once.  It  is  necessary  to  drill  on 
the  separate  facts  of  the  lesson  as  they  are  developed,  and 
there  should  be  a  summary  at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  The 
summary  is  often  very  necessary,  to  fit  together  in  a  unified 
whole  the  facts  that  were  acquired  in  an  isolated  order. 
This  summary  of  what  was  learned  in  the  lesson  should 
generally  be  made  by  the  pupils  themselves,  if  they  are  old 
enough,  and  with  only  enough  guidance  to  make  it  orderly. 
A  black-board  outline  is  useful  in  summarizing.  This  may 
be  copied  by  the  older  pupils  and  used  as  a  basis  of  a  home 
task  or  written  account  of  the  lesson. 

The  pupils'  answers  should  receive  some  attention.  Do 
not  accept  careless,  abbreviated,  and  ungrammatical  answers. 
It  would  be  pedantic  to  require  complete  statements  in  all 
answers,  but,  wherever  proper,  demand  more  complete  ex- 
pression. Pupils  and  teachers  alike  should  avoid  all  book- 
ishness  and  technicality  in  language.  Such  simple  scientific 
words  as  calyx,  corolla,  stamen,  pistil,  pollen,  etc.,  are  short 
and  have  been  popularized  and  should  be  used. 

Rules  for  Questioning 

In  theory  the  development  lesson  strengthens  the  mind  of 
the  child,  for  he  must  by  his  own  energies  discover  facts, 
make  comparisons,  and  deduce  principles.  In  practice, 


30  NATURE-STUDY 

however,  a  development  lesson  often  becomes  a  sort  of  mental 
prop  that  weakens  the  child  because  he  is  not  incited  to 
spontaneous  effort.  For  a  teacher  may  by  suggestive,  alterna- 
tive, and  direct  questions  herself  give  the  whole  matter  of  the 
lesson  to  the  pupils  without  their  exerting  themselves  in  the 
least.  The  lesson  becomes  simply  a  lecture  in  the  interroga- 
tive form.  Such  teaching  is  wholly  bad. 

Questions  serve  as  a  means  to  reveal  defects  in  knowledge, 
or  to  sound  the  extent  of  knowledge,  or,  incidentally,  to  secure 
wandering  attention.  But  there  is  still  another  and  most 
important  use  of  the  question,  and  that  is  to  encourage  and 
direct  thought,  as  in  the  process  of  eliciting  in  a  development 
lesson.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  lesson  depends  upon  the 
way  in  which  these  questions  are  worded.  The  following 
rules  should  be  observed  in  nature-study,  as  in  any  develop- 
ment lesson: 

1.  QUESTIONS  SHOULD  BE  CLEAR  AND  CONCISE.    A  vague 
and  lengthy  question  cannot  be  understood  or  followed  by 
the  pupils.     This  question  was  taken  from  a  pupil  teacher's 
lesson  plan  in  a  nature  lesson:     "On  a  coral  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean  there  are  a  few  flowers  and  some  trees.     How 
did  they  get  here,  since  this  island  has  only  recently  reached 
above  the  water  after  having  been  so  long  submerged?" 
Such  a  question  would  only  bewilder  the  children. 

2.  QUESTIONS  SHOULD  BE  DEFINITE,  ADMITTING  OF  BUT 
ONE  ANSWER.     "Why  is  the  lamp  burning?"     "What  are 
we  always  doing?"  are  questions  that   may   be  answered 
correctly  several  times   before  the  desired    answer   is  ob- 
tained. 

3.  DO  NOT,  AS   A  RULE,  ASK  DIRECT  QUESTIONS,  ANSWER- 
ABLE BY  YES  OR  NO.     The  pupil  should  study  out  for  him- 


STUDYING   NATURE   IN  THE   GRADES  31 

self  the  point  referred  to.  "Is  the  heron's  bill  short?" 
"Does  this  animal  have  thick  fur  to  keep  it  warm?"  are 
questions  that  require  little  if  any  original  thought.  Often, 
however,  direct  questions  are  permissible  when  employed 
simply  to  call  attention  to  some  obvious  fact  of  which  further 
use  is  then  made  in  the  development.  "Can  the  dog  climb 
a  tree?"  "Why  not?"  (Referring  to  the  nature  of  the 
claws.)  To  avoid  the  direct  question  here  would  be  pedantic 
and  beating  about  the  bush. 

4.  DO  NOT  ASK  ALTERNATIVE   QUESTIONS  THAT  ADMIT  OF 

BUT  TWO  ANSWERS.  "Is  this  bird's  bill  long  or  short?" 
"Has  this  plant  entire  or  serrate  leaves?"  Such  questions 
are  easy  to  answer  correctly  perhaps  the  first  time,  certainly 
the  second. 

5.  DO    NOT    ASK    QUESTIONS    THAT    ENCOURAGE    GUESSING 

MERELY.  Children  are  apt  to  theorize  about  things  in  nature- 
study.  Hold  them  to  the  facts. 

6.  AN  ELLIPSIS  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  to  be  filled  out  by 
the  pupils  is  a  form  of  question  sometimes  used  to  save  time, 
to  drill,  or  to  make  the  work  easy.     It  is  legitimate  to  use 
this  occasionally  for  the  first  two  reasons,  but  the  ellipsis 
should  be  carefully  treated.     It  should  still  require  effort 
from  the  pupil.     "The  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  causes 
day  and  -  "  and  "Molecules  are  held  together  by  the 
force  of  co —         "  are  bad  ellipses  and  simply  prompt  the 
pupil. 

7.  NATURE-STUDY  teachers  frequently  fail  in  attempting 
to  bring  out  comparisons  by  using  direct  and  suggestive 
questions.  "Are  the  hoofs  of  the  cow  like  those  of  the  horse  ?  " 
"Does  the  hen  have  webbed  feet  like  the  duck?"  are  wrong 
forms  of  questions  to  bring  out  correspondence  and  differ- 


32  NATURE-STUDY 

ences.  Instead,  ask  the  pupils  directly  to  "compare  the 
hoofs  of  the  horse  and  the  cow,"  and  "tell  how  the  feet  of 
the  hen  differ  from  those  of  the  duck."  Ask  them  how 
—  and  -  -  compare,  and  how  they  are  alike  or  un- 
like, etc.,  and  then  the  pupil  must  work  out  the  comparison 
for  himself. 


CHAPTER  V 
ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL 

ONE  of  the  chief  functions  of  nature-study  is  to  cultivate 
the  power  and  the  habit  of  observation.  This  is  possible 
only  when  there  is  something  to  observe.  The  object  or  thing 
studied  should  be  actually  present  before  the  children  if 
possible.  If  it  is  not,  then  the  lesson  is  not  an  object  lesson, 
and  as  a  lesson  on  nature  it  will  lose  much  of  its  effectiveness. 
If  there  is  no  illustrative  material  for  the  lesson  there  can  be 
no  real  perceptions  of  the  thing.  Reference  can  only  be 
made  to  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge  of,  or  experience 
with,  the  object,  and  that  may  be  vague,  little,  or  nothing. 
The  reasoning  based  upon  such  facts  will  necessarily  be 
imaginative,  and  conclusions  cannot  be  immediately  tested 
and  verified.  We  very  properly  decry  the  old-fashioned 
text-book  method,  pure  and  simple,  in  teaching  physics  and 
geology,  without  experiments,  specimens,  and  field  observa- 
tions. And  yet  many  teachers  attempt  to  give  nature 
lessons  in  this  unscientific  and  unpedagogical  way.  This 
is  because  they  fail  to  realize  that  the  illustrations  are  the 
very  foundation  of  the  lesson,  and  not  merely  an  entertaining 
and  ornamental  feature. 

It  is  customary  to  teach  nature-study  by  the  development 
method — the  method  of  individual  observation  and  reasoning 
from  the  object  before  the  pupils.  Thus  is  seen  the  great 

33 


34  NATURE-STUDY 

usefulness  and  purpose  of  the  illustrations.  They  are  the 
starting  point,  the  basis  of  the  lesson. 

The  teacher  should,  therefore,  make  every  effort  to  secure 
ample  and  suitable  objects  and  experiments  to  bring  out  the 
facts  of  the  lesson.  Small  insects,  minerals,  plants,  etc., 
should  be  collected  in  quantity,  so  as  to  provide  each  pupil 
with  a  specimen,  that  he  may  be  able  to  examine  it  carefully. 
I  recall  one  teacher  who  gave  a  lesson  on  the  fish.  She  had 
some  small  boys  go  out  the  day  before  and  catch  a  lot  of  min- 
nows. These  she  put  into  a  number  of  fruit  iars  which  she 
placed  on  the  pupils'  desks,  so  that  they  could  easily  see  the 
structure  of  the  fish,  the  breathing,  the  use  of  fins  and  tail,  etc. 
The  lesson  was  vastly  more  successful  than  if  she  had  had 
only  a  single  fish  in  a  jar  in  front  of  the  class,  or  had  passed 
it  around  among  the  pupils.  A  single  small  specimen  held 
up  before  a  class  cannot  be  accurately  seen,  and  it  takes  ex- 
tra time  and  repetition  of  directions  to  pass  it  around.  This, 
however,  must  be  done  if  only  a  limited  number  of  specimens 
can  be  obtained.  If  the  illustration  is  large  enough  it  may 
be  placed  in  front  of  the  class,  but  in  an  elevated  position  and 
in  good  light.  The  other  senses  besides  that  of  sight  should 
be  employed  by  the  pupils  in  making  their  observations, 
where  anything  is  to  be  gained  thereby. 

Sometimes  the  teacher  forgets  to  use  her  illustrations, 
though  she  has  prepared  them  and  has  them  in  class,  because 
she  gets  so  interested  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson. 
Sometimes  the  illustrations  are  used  only  in  a  perfunctory 
and  superficial  way.  The  object  might  just  as  well  be  absent, 
as  far  as  its  being  the  basis  df  the  lesson  is  concerned.  The 
teacher  should  not  forget  that  the  lesson  is  to  be  developed 
by  means  of  the  illustrations. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL 


35 


Since  so  much  depends  upon  them,  it  behooves  the 
teacher  to  select  and  prepare  good  and  sufficient  illustra- 
tions. Nothing  shows  more  the  diligence  and  ability  of  a 
nature-study  teacher  than  the  material  prepared  for  illustrat- 
ing the  matter  of  the  lesson.  It  is  an  index  of  the  teacher. 
Fitting  and  enough  illustrations  show  forethought  and  under- 
standing; scanty  or  poorly  adapted  material  or  the  entire 
lack  of  it  indicate  shiftlessness,  want  of  providence,  or  an 
uninventive  mind. 

Various  kinds  of  illus- 
trations should  be  used 
in  nature  lessons.  The 
ideal  way  to  teach  nature- 
study  would  be  to  take 
the  class  out  into  the 
meadows  and  woods,  to 
the  brook  or  the  lake,  to 
the  orchard  or  the  flower  FlG- '•  Guinea  pigs' 

garden,  or  to  the  farm  fields,  and  there  study  nature  un- 
adulterated and  under  natural  conditions.  Field  lessons  will 
be  referred  to  in  a  later  chapter.  The  point  emphasized 
at  present  is  that  the  natural  object  under  natural  conditions 
is  generally  the  ideal  illustration  for  a  nature  lesson.  School- 
room lessons  should  be  illustrated  by  the  actual  object  when- 
ever possible  or  desirable.  A  living,  growing  plant,  a  live 
squirrel  or  a  live  toad,  a  cage-ful  of  live  ants,  etc.,  all  these  are 
possible  and  desirable.  In  case  the  object  cannot  be  brought 
into  the  school,  let  the  scholars  go  to  it.  Where  the  live  animal 
cannot  be  got,  then  killed  and  preserved  specimens  must  do. 
Stuffed  birds,  mounted  insects,  specimens  in  alcohol  or  forma- 
lin, herbaria,  etc.,  come  under  this  head.  Parts  of  the  plants  or 


36  NATURE-STUDY 

animals,  natural  or  manufactured  products  of  plants,  animals, 
or  minerals,  geological  specimens,  astronomical  and  meteoro- 
logical phenomena  and  experiments  are  all  included  in  this 
class  of  illustrations — the  actual  thing.  They  are  the  most  real. 
Of  less  value  than  actual  objects,  but  still  of  great  value, 
are  the  following  representative  illustrations. 

Models,  Pictures,  and  Diagrams 

MODELS  of  sand,  clay,  or  other  plastic  material  are  very 
useful  in  geography.  Anatomical  casts  are  excellent  in  the 
study  of  physiology.  The  dissectible  kind  are  especially 
instructive  and  give  an  idea  of  internal  anatomy.  Models  of 
geological  sections  to  illustrate  the  strata  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth  are  very  good.  Again,  a  properly  constructed  working 
model  of  a  machine  or  other  physical  apparatus  adds  to 
the  interest  in  the  lesson  and  helps  to  explain. 

PICTURES  may  be  used  in  lieu  of  other  illustrations  and,  if 
well  selected,  may  be  very  effective.  In  this  day  of  wonderful 
reproductive  processes  by  photograph,  half-tone,  and  color 
photography,  pictures  furnish  excellent  illustrations  in  nature- 
study.  Children  naturally  love  them  and  are  interested 
in  their  every  detail.  Pictures  leave  for  a  long  time  a  definite 
image  in  the  visional  memory.  The  nature-study  teacher 
may  secure  them  from  many  sources.  Animal  pictures  are 
to  be  found  in  natural  histories,  zoologies,  and  animal  readers; 
and  plant  pictures  are  found  in  botanies,  garden  books,  etc. 
The  teacher  should  make  a  nature-study  picture  scrap-book, 
by  cutting  out  illustrations  from  old  geographies,  zoologies, 
botanies,  and  other  text-books,  and  from  magazines  and 
papers.  Let  the  children  also  do  this.  Colored  pictures 
are  the  best,  providing  the  colors  are  true  to  nature,  which 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  37 

is  not  always  the  case.  There  are  now  procurable  color 
charts  of  birds,  butterflies,  mammals,  plants,  and  many  books 
illustrated  by  the  three-color  process  which  are  excellent. 
Every  school  ought  to  have  them  in  its  library.  There  are 
also  large  printed  wall  charts  of  plants  and  animals,  which 
are  useful  in  the  lower  grades.  Some  of  these  are  published 
by  the  primary  education  journals. 

Pictures  often  add  a  great  deal  even  where  the  actual  ob- 
ject or  parts  of.  it  are  present.  Thus,  a  lesson  on  the  pine 
tree,  though  well  illustrated  with  twigs  and  needles,  cones, 
cross,  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  stem,  bark,  etc.,  is  im- 
proved and  made  more  interesting  by  introducing  pictures 
of  a  pine  forest,  a  pine  tree  with  a  man  near  it,  for  comparison 
of  height,  a  logging  scene,  a  saw-mill,  etc.  Pictures  may 
show  new  features  of  the  object  or  its  natural  surroundings. 

DIAGRAMS:  Lecturers  frequently  illustrate  their  remarks 
by  crayon  sketches  while  they  talk.  Such  lectures  are  some- 
times called  "chalk  talks"  and  are  generally  very  popular. 
The  teacher  should  talk  with  her  crayon  if  she  has  the  least 
ability  to  draw.  Frequently  she  can  talk  to  better  effect 
with  her  crayon  than  with  words.  Board  drawings  simplify 
explanations  which,  without  them,  would  be  long  and  labored. 
Sometimes  the  word-description  calls  up  in  the  minds  of 
pupils  an  erroneous  image,  or  none  at  all,  while  the  idea 
could  have  been  conveyed  more  clearly  and  correctly  by  a 
black-board  sketch.  For  example,  if  the  teacher  should  at- 
tempt to  describe  to  pupils  not  familiar  with  it  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  the  common  lifting  pump  by  saying: 
"In  the  common  water  pump  there  is  a  barrel  or  cylinder 
within  about  thirty  feet  of  the  water;  in  this  cylinder  there 
is  a  piston  which  is  moved  up  and  down  by  the  piston  rod 


38  NATURE-STUDY 

which  is  connected  with  the  pump  handle;  in  the  piston  is 
a  valve  opening  upward,  and  there  is  another  valve  at  the  top 
of  the  pipe  leading  from  the  cylinder  to  the  water,  and  this 
also  opens  upward,  etc.";  probably  long  before  reaching 
this  point  the  listeners  would  have  given  up  as  hopeless  the 
attempt  to  imagine  the  appearance  of  the  pump.  How  much 
better  it  would  be  to  make  a  simple  rough  sketch  or  diagram 
of  the  parts  referred  to,  as  the  oral  description  progressed. 
Through  the  aid  of  the  eye  some  sort  of  image  would  be 
formed,  which  would  come  a  great  deal  nearer  the  reality 
than  that  derived  from  the  oral  description  alone. 

There  are  several  other  advantages  to  be  gained  by  such 
sketches.  Children  like  to  see  the  teacher  draw  the  object 
studied,  and  they  become  more  interested  in  the  study  of  it. 
Again,  by  shortening  a  lengthy  description  we  make  it  more 
effective,  so  that  it  does  not  need  so  much  repetition.  Thus 
time  is  saved,  another  important  item. 

Nearly  every  lesson  in  nature-study  affords  opportunity  for 
the  use  of  black-board  drawings.  These  may  be  either  dia- 
grams and  sketches,  or  more  elaborate  drawings.  The  latter 
require  more  care  and  time,  and  should  be  drawn  before  the  class 
period.  But  sketch  outlines  and  diagrams  should  as  a  rule 
be  drawn  during  the  recitation,  when  they  are  needed.  They 
lose  much  of  their  effectiveness  and  usefulness  if  drawn 
before.  This  applies  especially  to  pictures  intended  to  show 
construction  (of  apparatus),  development  (of  a  plant),  or 
gradual  formation  (in  geology  or  geography). 

Diagrams,  though  more  symbolical  than  pictures,  are 
highly  useful,  especially  with  the  older  pupils.  The  picture 
shows  the  external  appearance  of  a  thing  as  the  eye  sees  it. 
The  diagram  shows  what  the  mind  sees  in  it.  Diagrams 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  39 

are  used  to  simplify  complex  structure,  by  representing  the 
essentials  only,  or  by  emphasizing  the  important  features. 
Diagrams  show  internal  structure  and  sectional  views  not 
visible  from  without.  By  a  diagram  or  sketch  we  can  quickly 
show  the  construction  of  the  steam  engine,  the  structure  of 
the  ear,  or  of  a  flower,  the  cross  section  of  a  plant,  the 
growth  of  a  seedling,  the  formation  of  sedimentary  strata, 
etc.  If  colored  crayons  are  used  the  effectiveness  of  diagrams 
is  greatly  increased.1 

STORIES  AND  ANECDOTES  :  These  are  much  used  in  nature- 
study  to  illustrate  the  qualities  or  the  character  of  an  ob- 
ject, the  conditions  under  which  it  is  found,  etc.  Let  the 
pupils  relate  personal  experiences  with  the  object  studied. 
Let  the  teacher  tell  hers.  Read  from  nature  readers  and 
other  books,  to  bring  out  further  facts  or  to  confirm  those 
brought  out  in  the  lesson.  These  stories  add  to  the  interest 
in  the  lesson,  especially  in  the  lower  grades.  We  should, 
however,  be  careful  that  the  sources  from  which  these  stories 
come  are  reliable.  Unfortunately  this  is  not  the  case  with 
many  of  our  so-called  nature  readers.  Sometimes  a  poem 
or  a  prose  selection  can  be  very  properly  used  in  the  nature 
lesson  to  reinforce  or  to  apply  what  was  learned  in  the 
lesson,  with  the  additional  value  that  a  new  interpretation,  a 
higher  meaning,  the  aesthetic  or  the  spiritual  element  of  the 
facts  learned  may  be  brought  out.2 

The  Experiment 

To  experiment  is  to  place  things  under  various  conditions 
to  see  what  will  happen,  and  to  see  how  the  things  will 

1  See  Chapter  VI  for  pupils'  drawings,  etc. 

2  In  Chapter  VI,  myths  and  fairy  tales  are  discussed  in  regard  to  their 
application  in  nature-study. 


40  NATURE-STUDY 

behave.  If  a  thing  always  acts  the  same  way  under  similar 
conditions,  we  say  so  and  tell  how  it  acts.  That  is,  we  state 
its  law  oj  action.  Or,  perhaps,  the  experiments  bring  out 
certain  qualities  that  the  objects  possess,  and  we  may  then 
be  able  to  classify  the  thing  where  it  belongs.  In  general, 
in  an  experiment,  we  look  for  certain  phenomena  or  certain 
qualities.  These  we  make  use  of  as  the  basis  of  our  general- 
izations, which  may  either  be  in  the  form  of  a  law  of  action,  or 
a  classification  of  facts  or  objects  in  their  proper  categories. 
The  experiment  is  the  scientist's  great  test  for  truth.  It  is 
the  basis  of  practically  all  science. 

Many  phenomena  in  nature-study  demand  experiments  to 
produce  or  to  illustrate  them.  There  are  many  simple  ex- 
periments that  would  delight  the  children,  give  them  useful 
information,  and  at  the  same  time  afford  excellent  practice 
in  inductive  reasoning.  Touching  a  sensitive  plant  to  see  it 
fold  its  leaflets,  softening  a  bone  in  acid  to  show  the  need 
of  mineral  matter  to  strengthen  them,  placing  some  leaves 
under  a  bell-glass  to  see  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
pores,  testing  a  suspended  magnet  to  see  that  it  points  north 
and  south,  balancing  a  heavy  weight  by  means  of  a  small  one 
on  a  lever,  rearing  a  caterpillar  into  a  butterfly, — all  these 
and  hosts  of  others  are  fit  experiments  for  the  grades. 

Consider  the  principle  of  expansion  by  heat.  To  show 
this  it  is  necessary  to  perform  some  simple  experiments  in 
which  this  phenomenon  appears.  Perform  the  usual  ex- 
periments, such  as  the  ball  and  ring  experiment;  heat  some 
water  in  a  bottle  with  a  narrow  neck  and  note  the  rising  of 
the  liquid  on  warming;  repeat  with  the  school-room  ther- 
mometer. Show  also  that  a  bottle  filled  with  air  expands 
when  heated.  In  all  these  experiments  the  phenomenon  of 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  41 

expansion  appears.  Be  sure  that  the  children  see  it  and 
note  the  cause.  Then  there  will  be  no  question  of  their  con- 
cluding that  heat  causes  expansion. 

Why  not  let  it  go  with  one  experiment  ?  Because  just  one 
case  is  not  sufficient  warrant  for  a  broad  generalization. 
Several  experiments,  all  agreeing  and  showing  the  same 
thing,  will  be  more  convincing  than  only  one.  To  be  actually 
positive  that  heat  causes  expansion  would  require  us  to  with- 
hold judgment  until  we  had  made  an  infinite  number  of  ex- 
periments or  observations  on  all  the  cases  that  were  possible. 
But  we  are  satisfied  to  make  a  fair  number  of  tests,  and  then 
to  reason  by  analogy  and  apply  the  law  to  all  cases.  In  the 
above  case — expansion  caused  by  heat — if  the  pupil  is  led 
far  enough  in  his  studies,  he  will  discover  some  anomalous 
cases  or  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  He  finds,  for  ex- 
ample, that  water  near  its  freezing  point  actually  contracts 
on  being  warmed,  and  expands  on  being  cooled.  So  it  will 
be  well  to  preserve  an  attitude  of  open-mindedness  in  science, 
as  in  all  other  things,  for  our  preconceived  notions  may  not 
be  quite  right. 

After  the  general  principle  of  a  series  of  experiments  has 
been  reasoned  out,  the  pupils  should  then  find  applications 
in  common  life.  Besides  being  an  excellent  drill  in  the 
principle  studied,  this  will  connect  the  school-room  lesson 
with  things  of  daily  life. 

Experiments  require  unusual  care  in  their  preparation 
and  must  be  well  chosen.  The  teacher  ought  never  to  try  an 
experiment  in  class  which  she  has  not  done  before,  as  it  may 
not  "work,"  and  she  will  then  lay  herself  open  to  criticism 
from  her  pupils,  who  will  rightly  judge  her  as  either  careless  in 
preparation  or  as  ignorant  of  her  subject.  The  omission 


42  NATURE-STUDY 

of  some  slight  detail  will  often  spoil  an  experiment.  If  the 
teacher  does  the  experiment  before  class-time,  she  will  see 
difficulties  both  for  herself  and  her  pupils  and  can  prepare 
for  them.  Experiments  in  nature-study  require  no  elaborate 
apparatus.  Any  ingenious  teacher,  aided  by  bright  pupils, 
can  construct  and  invent  simple  and  efficient  "home-made" 
apparatus.  The  boys  will  like  to  make  models  of  machines 
and  other  mechanical  apparatus.  The  school  stove,  radia- 
tor, oil-lamp,  or  alcohol-stove  will  do  for  a  source  of  heat. 
Glasses,  cups,  and  bottles  will  replace  test-tubes  and  beakers. 
Spools  make  good  pulleys.  Old  files  or  knitting-needles 
make  excellent  magnets  when  stroked  on  a  magnet.  Many 
other  pieces  of  apparatus  may  be  devised,  that  for  nature- 
study  will  do  as  well  as  those  which  are  factory-made.  If 
there  is  a  manual  training  department  in  the  school,  it 
should  be  utilized  as  much  as  possible  in  the  making  of 
apparatus. 

The  high  school  science  teacher  will  generally  be  found 
ready  with  suggestions  and  assistance,  if  the  nature-study 
teacher  appeals  to  him.  Apparatus  and  material  may  often 
be  secured  through  him.  He  may  be  willing  to  give  the 
children  experimental  exhibitions  or  talks  on  nature  sub- 
jects. Often  he  has  valuable  lantern  slides  that  he  can  show 
the  grade  children.  For  instance,  get  him  to  give  an  illus- 
trated talk  on  birds,  insects,  plants,  etc.  The  children  would 
be  delighted  to  hear  these  talks.  He  may  also  give  experi- 
ments with  the  air-pump,  the  static  electric  machine,  etc. 
Similarly,  college  professors  may  often  be  got  to  aid  the  grade 
teacher.  Again,  physicians  and  others  interested  in  scien- 
tific lines  are  often  willing  to  lend  apparatus,  specimens, 
pictures,  etc.,  and  to  give  elementary  talks  on  their  special 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  43 

subjects.     Different  grades  or  schools  may  be  combined  for 
these  purposes. 

The  Museum 

Museums  are  places  where  objects  of  art,  history,  or  nature 
are  collected  and  preserved,  not  merely  for  their  own  sake, 
but  for  the  pleasure  and  instruction  of  the  people  who  come 
to  look  at  them.  They  have  so  important  a  purpose  that 
in  large  cities  museums  have  been  opened  to  the  public  on 
the  Sabbath,  that  the  working  classes  may  have  a  chance  to 
see  them.  If  a  museum  is  properly  classified  and  labelled, 
its  educational  value  may  be  very  great. 

Museums  of  natural  history  are  very  popular,  and  are  much 
visited  by  old  and  young.  Here  not  only  the  common  native 
types  may  be  seen,  but  also  many  rare  and  foreign  ones. 

Universities  have  their  natural  history  collections,  their 
mineral  collections,  their  herbaria,  etc.  High  schools  have, 
or  should  have,  similar  small  collections,  if  they  expect  to 
do  efficient  work  in  the  sciences;  and  there  ought  to  be 
something  of  the  sort  in  connection  with  every  common 
school.  In  Europe,  notably  in  Germany,  there  are  collections 
of  natural  history,  minerals,  plants,  etc.,  in  the  common 
schools.  Every  school  where  nature-study  is  attempted 
should  have  at  least  a  cabinet  collection  of  specimens.  These 
should  be  collected  by  the  teacher  and  pupils,  or  donated  by 
friends  and  patrons. 

Making  a  collection  is  interesting  work,  a  work  in  which 
the  pupils  can  be  easily  enlisted.  Ask  them  to  bring  "speci- 
mens" of  all  kinds  suitable  for  preservation,  and  you  will 
probably  have  an  embarrassment  of  riches.  The  teacher 
on  her  travels,  or  in  her  vacation,  should  remember  the 


44 


NATURE-STUDY 


school  cabinet.     People  who  have  collections  of  curios  can 
often  be  prevailed  upon  to  give  them  to  the  school. 


FIG.  2.    School  Specimen  Cabinet. 

Place  in  the  collection  such  things  as  these:    Herbaria; 
plant  products,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar; 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL 


45 


mounted  insects  and  insects  in  alcohol;  other  specimens  in 
preservatives;  shells;  animal  products  like  furs,  wool,  ivory, 
leather;  articles  in  different  stages  of  preparation,  such  as 
a  shoe  partly  put  together;  fabrics  indifferent  stages;  sections 
of  different  kinds  of  woods;  illustrations  of  seed  dispersal; 
minerals,  etc.,  etc.  All  these  things  can  be  had  for  the  asking 
or  the  picking  up.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  take  a  specimen  when 
you  find  it  and  not  to  leave  it  till  the  next  time  you  come  along, 
for  most  likely  it  will  be  forgotten.  If  every  teacher  added 
something  to  the  school  collection,  it  would  in  a  few  years 
amount  to  something.  If  no  collection  has  been  started,  the 
next  teacher  should  begin  one. 

To  be  of  any  use  a  collection  should  be  properly  classified 
and  labelled.  A  poorly  arranged  and  unlabelled  collection  is 
often  worse  than  useless.  Put  the  insects  on  one  shelf,  the 
minerals  on  another,  the  shells  by  themselves,  and  the  plants 
in  another  place.  Put  neat  labels  on  the  specimens,  telling 
their  names,  where  they  were  found,  who  presented  them, 
and  interesting  remarks  about  the  properties  and  usefulness 
of  the  specimens.  In  this  way  the  collection  will  be  of  in- 
terest and  value  to  those  who  see  it. 

Stuffed  birds  and  other  animals  are  always  an  inter- 
esting feature  of  a  natural  history  collection.  These  are 
more  difficult  to  get,  but  there  generally  is  somebody  in  the 
community  who  does  taxidermic  work  and  who  will  be  willing 
to  mount  a  few  animals  for  the  school.  Or,  perhaps,  the  older 
boys,  with  the  aid  of  a  manual  of  taxidermy,  could  prepare  a 
few  specimens.  The  various  game  birds  and  mammals 
would  do  very  well  for  this  purpose,  and  the  harmless  and 
beneficial  animals  could  be  spared. 

Incidentally  it  may  be  added  here  that  objects  of  geo- 


46  NATURE-STUDY 

graphical,  historical  or  archeological,  and  literary  interest 
should  be  likewise  collected  and  put  into  the  school  cabinet, 
as  useful  aids  in  other  subjects  than  nature-study. 

After  a  museum  or  collection  has  been  established,  let  it 
not  be  forgotten  and  left  to  disuse.  An  unused,  dust-covered 
collection  of  specimens  represents  only  so  much  wasted  time 
and  energy. 

If  larger  museums  or  collections  are  accessible,  visit  them 
with  your  classes.  Take  the  children  to  botanical  and 
zoological  gardens  and  to  the  menagerie. 

Live  Specimens 

Since  a  live  creature  is  much  more  interesting  than  a  dead 
one,  try  to  secure  the  former  for  nature-study  illustrations. 
Have  the  children  bring  to  school  their  pet  birds,  squirrels, 
rabbits,  etc.  Keep  them  in  the  school  for  a  time,  and  let  the 
children  make  observations  upon  their  life-habits.  Have  the 
pupils  bring  live  insects,  toads,  frogs,  turtles,  fishes,  and 
other  aquatic  animals  and  keep  them  in  cages  or  aquaria. 
The  metamorphosis  of  a  caterpillar  into  a  butterfly,  the  de- 
velopment of  a  tadpole  into  a  frog,  the  hibernation  of  a  toad, 
the  emergence  of  a  dragon-fly  from  its  nymph  case,  and 
many  other  interesting  and  instructive  things  can  be  seen 
by  observing  these  school-room  animals.  It  is  a  pleasure  to 
see  aquaria  with  gold  or  other  fish,  and  other  aquatic  animals 
and  pretty  fresh-water  plants  in  a  school-room.  They  not 
only  vary  the  ordinary  school-room  interests,  but  have  a 
decorative  value.  Similarly,  potted  plants  in  the  windows 
are  at  the  same  time  beautiful  and  furnish  material  for 
many  nature  lessons.  A  canary-bird  in  the  room  is  sure  to 
add  a  touch  of  cheerfulness. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  47 

Let  it  be  the  children's  duty  to  provide  and  care  for  these 
school-room  animals  and  plants.  Teach  them  the  needs  of 
the  creatures  and  see  that  these  are  satisfied.  A  good  deal 
can  be  learned  about  the  feeding  and  other  habits  of  these 
creatures  in  the  school-room.  They  should  be  looked  upon 
not  simply  as  decorative  objects  but  as  nature-study  material. 

Do  not  let  an  animal  or  plant  thirst  .or  starve  to  death  if 
you  can  help  it.  Do  not  put  a  moisture-loving  creature  in 
a  dry  cage,  or  vice-versa.  Try  to  make  the  conditions  as 
natural  for  the  caged  animal  or  a  plant  as  possible.  This 
will  require  an  intelligent  study  of  the  needs  of  each,  and 
thus  give  a  very  good  chance  for  nature-study. 

Incidental  Outdoor  Observations 

School-room  study  of  nature  should  be  supplemented  with 
outdoor  observations.  Get  the  children  in  the  habit  of  see- 
ing the  things  about  them.  Have  them  report  on  what  they 
see  on  their  way  to  the  school  or  on  a  visit  to  the  country. 
After  studying  an  object  in  the  school-room,  ask  the  children 
to  observe  it  outdoors  and  to  note  its  surroundings  or  its 
outdoor  habits.  Sometimes  have  them  make  preliminary 
observations  outdoors  for  a  future  indoor  lesson.  Thus,  in 
preparation  for  the  lesson  on  winter  birds,  have  the  children 
on  the  lookout  for  winter  birds  for  a  week  or  so  before,  and 
let  them  report  on  their  observations.  These  may  then  be 
summarized,  and  conclusions  drawn  from  them  in  the  indoor 
lesson.  Similarly,  preliminary  observations  should  be  made 
in  the  daily  weather  study. 

Teach  the  children  how  to  observe  wild  animals.  If  you 
suddenly  come  upon  a  rabbit,  a  squirrel,  a  butterfly,  or  a 
bird,  stand  still  for  a  while  and  make  no  noise.  Wild  creat- 


48  NATURE-STUDY 

ures  will  generally  not  flee  then,  but  will  go  on  feeding 
or  with  their  other  occupations.  But  sound  and  sudden 
motions  startle  them.  If  you  do  not  frighten  the  animal 
away  at  once  on  your  approach,  it  may  remain  for  some  time 
while  you  are  making  your  observations  on  it.  You  may 
even  approach  quite  near  if  you  do  it  quietly  and  slowly. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  observations  are 
made  in  this  incidental  and  accidental  way. 

It  is  sometimes  a  good  plan,  with  the  older  pupils,  to 
assign  to  the  whole  class  or  to  individuals  certain  animals 
or  plants  for  continued  observation,  and  to  require  memo- 
randa to  be  made  of  these  observations.  In  this  way  the 
pupils  may  get  some  of  that  love  for,  and  knowledge  of,  out- 
door things  that  the  naturalist  possesses. 

Field  Lessons 

The  naturalist  goes  into  the  fields  and  woods,  by  the  lakes 
and  brooks,  and  observes  and  studies  sympathetically  the 
birds,  the  mammals,  the  flowers,  or  the  rocks  of  the  earth. 
It  is  a  real  pleasure  for  him  to  be  out  among  these  in- 
teresting things.  He  sees  nature  under  the  most  natural 
conditions.  He  sees  the  natural  setting  of  things,  how  they 
are  adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  live,  and 
how  animals  and  plants  affect  each  other  or  live  together. 
He  has  a  broader  view  of  nature,  a  truer  view  than  he  who 
studies  these  things  indoors,  under  the  artificial  conditions 
of  the  laboratory  or  the  school-room.  This  is  true  nature- 
study.  The  indoor  study  of  things  that  naturally  belong 
outdoors,  among  other  outdoor  things,  can  never  show  their 
true  aspect.  Moulded  heaps  of  sand  are  a  pitiable  apology 
for  real  hills  and  mountains,  "the  glory  of  our  earth  and 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  49 

the  culminating  points  of  scenic  beauty  and  grandeur."  A 
plant  in  the  school-room  does  not  show  the  natural  mode 
of  growth,  and  an  animal  in  captivity  or  dead  is  not  the 
creature  of  the  forest. 

Field  lessons  will  do  much  to  correct  this  abnormal,  par- 
tial, and  indoor  view  of  nature.  This  is  the  ideal  way  to  study 
natural  history  and  earth  features.  This  is  the  only  way  to 
imbue  the  child  to  a  certain  extent  with  that  happy  spirit  and 
love  for  nature  so  peculiar  to  the  naturalist. 

Boys  and  girls  brought  up  in  the  country  have  a  greater 
stock  of  nature  lore  and  field  and  woodcraft  than  the 
average  city  child.  To  very  many  children  in  our  large 
cities  the  country,  with  its  woods  and  birds  and  flowers,  is  a 
foreign  land.  To  them  an  excursion  into  the  country  would 
be  a  rare  treat,  and  an  occasion  that  would  open  the  eyes 
to  many  wonderful  and  beautiful  things.  But  field  lessons 
would  be  profitable  also  to  children  in  our  smaller  towns. 
Even  the  country  child  has  much  to  learn  about  the  wild  life 
around  him. 

To  make  field  lessons  a  success  the  teacher  must  have  a 
definite  object  in  the  trip.  Aimless  wandering  about  with  a 
class  accomplishes  nothing.  Let  the  pupils  understand  that 
the  trip  is  not  for  a  romp  and  a  frolic,  but  a  lesson.  Tell 
them  what  they  are  going  out  to  study.  A  good  teacher  will 
be  able  to  conduct  a  class  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  pupils  on  a 
field  trip,  but  this  number  is  too  great  for  the  best  results. 
Large  classes  had  better  be  divided.  Sometimes  older  pupils 
may  act  as  assistants.  There  is  no  need  of  formality  and 
military  order  on  these  occasions,  but  let  this  be  understood 
by  all :  that  the  class  must  not  scatter  widely,  and  that  every 
child  must  come  immediately  at  the  teacher's  call,  when  she 


50  NATURE-STUDY 

has  something  she  wishes  all  to  see.  The  field  study  of  the 
object  may  in  general  follow  the  development  method;  that 
is,  the  pupils  are  to  make  the  observations  themselves  and 
to  use  these  in  their  reasoning.  If  the  lesson  is  difficult  and 
much  has  to  be  developed  in  the  field,  it  should  be  reviewed 
and  summarized  in  the  school-room  afterwards.  Older 


FIG.  3.    Nature-Study  Class  on  a  Field  Lesson. 

pupils  may  be  directed  to  make  notes  on  the  trip,  and  also 
sketches,  to  use  later  in  writing  an  account  of  the  studies  made. 
A  field  lesson  requires  preparation  just  as  any  other.  The 
teacher  should  previously  look  over  the  ground  and  find  a 
suitable  locality  for  the  lesson,  else  much  valuable  time  might 
be  lost  with  the  class  in  hunting  about  for  the  object  of 
study.  Moreover,  the  teacher  will  have  a  chance  to  ex- 
amine the  object  and  thus  prepare  for  emergencies  that  may 
come  up  in  the  lesson. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIAL  51 

If  school  officers  and  patrons  object  to  these  field  lessons 
in  school  hours,  they  may  be  given  out  of  school  hours  and 
at  recess.  The  teacher  who  gives  successful  and  instructive 
field  lessons  under  such  conditions  will  soon  be  able  to  con- 
vert those  who  object  to  them. 

Pupils  should  be  taken  out  for  collecting  plants,  animals, 
minerals,  and  the  like.  These  trips  may  be  made  much 
more  than  mere  collecting  trips,  for  the  environment  and  the 
habits  of  the  animals  caught  may  be  studied  at  the  same 
time.  The  school  cabinet  can  be  supplied  on  such  trips. 

Some  teachers  have  the  idea  that  one  has  to  go  far  to  give 
a  field  lesson.  This  is  a  mistake.  The  school  doorstep,  the 
school  ground,  the  street  or  road  in  front  of  the  school,  a 
vacant  lot  or  a  neighboring  field,  a  city  park,  a  flower  gar- 
den, a  roadcut,  a  hill  nearby  furnish  suggestions  for  field 
lessons  not  far  from  the  school. 

The  following  are  some  suggestions  for  field  lessons: 

ZOOLOGY:  Ant-hill.  Bee-hive.  Collecting  insects.  Ob- 
serving insects  pollinating  flowers,  destroying  crops,  foli- 
age, etc.  Birds,  nests,  and  habits.  Lake  or  stream  for 
aquatic  animals,  such  as  mollusks,  crayfish,  insects,  fish, 
frogs,  etc.  Seashore  for  marine  life.  Visit  to  a  menagerie 
or  a  zoological  garden.  Museum.  Visit  to  a  farmyard. 

BOTANY:  Buds.  Tree  study.  Visit  to  a  park;  to  a 
forest.  Collecting  autumn  leaves.  Collecting  fruits  and 
seeds  and  noting  means  for  dispersal.  Nutting  expedition. 
Collecting  and  studying  spring  flowers.  Same  with  flower- 
less  plants.  Visit  to  a  flower  garden  and  noting  relation  of 
plants  and  insects.  Work  in  the  school  garden.  Visit  to  a 
farm. 

EARTH  STUDY  :  Drainage  of  the  school-yard  on  a  rainy  day. 


52  NATURE-STUDY 

A  brook.  The  river.  Ravine.  Waterfall.  Cave.  Swamp. 
Hill.  Mountain.  Bluff.  Roadcut  (stratification).  Quarry 
(strata,  fossils).  Mine.  Spring.  Artesian  well.  Weather- 
ing and  soil  formation.  Glacial  drift.  Glacial  markings. 
Collecting  soils,  sand,  pebbles,  rocks,  minerals,  fossils.  School 
excursion  to  some  rugged  and  romantic  spot. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CORRELATION 

'Twould  be  endless  to  tell  you  the  things  that  he  knew, 
All  separate  facts,  undeniably  true, 
But  with  him  or  each  other  they'd  nothing  to  do, 
No  power  of  combining,  arranging,  discerning, 
Digested  the  masses  he  learned  into  learning. 

— Fable  for  Critics,  LOWELL. 

A  FACT  in  history  may  be  studied  in  an  isolated  way. 
But  when  the  student  sees  how  it  is  related  to  others, 
how  it  had  important  historical  bearings  and  consequences, 
then  it  is  better  understood  than  when  simply  studied  by 
itself.  The  study  of  a  fact  in  association  with  other  facts 
leads  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  fact  itself  and  to  the  dis- 
covery of  a  wider  truth.  The  more  associations  we  can 
connect  with  a  fact  to  be  acquired,  the  better  it  will  be 
fixed  in  the  memory.  This  may  be  done  by  looking  at  it 
from  different  points  of  view,  or  approaching  it  along  differ- 
ent lines  of  thought.  For  example,  coal  may  be  studied  in 
the  nature  lesson  as  to  formation  and  composition.  Jf  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania  were  studied  at  the  same  time,  it  would 
greatly  enhance  the  nature  lesson  if  the  coal  mines  and  the 
coal  industry  of  that  state  were  also  studied.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  geography  lesson  would  not  lose  anything  in  in- 
terest or  effectiveness  because  of  the  nature  lesson  on  coal. 

53 


54  NATURE-STUDY 

Thus  one  subject  can  be  made  to  help  another  by  forming 
new  associations  about  the  things  studied.  Again,  the  sub- 
ject of  respiration  can  be  made  clearer  and  more  interesting 
by  some  experiments  on  the  properties  of  oxygen,  CO2,  ni- 
trogen and  water  vapor  in  the  air.  The  usefulness  of  the  lesson 
in  chemistry  will  become  apparent  to  the  pupils  in  the  fol- 
lowing lesson  in  physiology. 

These  illustrations  show  in  a  general  way  what  is  meant  by 
correlation  in  education.  To  correlate  subjects  is  to  bring  out 
useful  connections  between  them,  to  explain  one  lesson  by 
another,  to  add  interest  to  the  facts  in  one  lesson  by  showing 
their  relation  to  facts  learned  in  another.  In  this  way  associa- 
tions are  formed  that  help  the  pupil's  memory. 

Nature-study  lends  itself  very  easily  to  correlation  with 
other  subjects,  especially  with  the  formal  or  expression 
studies,  such  as  reading,  language,  writing,  drawing.  It  is 
very  profitable  to  pursue  nature-study  and  geography  to- 
gether. It  is  a  good  plan  to  study  in  the  nature  lessons  the 
animals,  plants,  minerals,  and  natural  phenomena  referred 
to  in  geography. 

There  must  be  something  upon  which  to  practise  language, 
writing,  drawing,  etc.  The  nature  lessons  may  afford  suit- 
able matter  for  many  lessons  in  these  subjects.  The  thing 
studied  in  the  nature  lesson  may  be  the  subject  of  the  read- 
ing lesson,  and  may  often  be  used  as  the  object  in  a  drawing 
lesson.  In  this  way  there  is  a  saving  of  time  and  energy  on 
the  part  of  pupils  and  teachers. 

Nature-Study  and  Geography 

Geography  includes  more  or  less  all  of  the  natural  sciences, 
and  if  correlation  is  ever  desirable  it  certainly  is  in  the  case 


CORRELATION  55 

of  this  subject  and  nature-study.  In  fact,  much  of  the  geog- 
raphy would  be  unintelligible  or  vague  without  a  study  of 
the  underlying  phenomena  and  the  animals,  plants,  and  other 
natural  objects  referred  to.  Many  teachers  do  make  a  study 
of  these  things  in  geography,  but  that  amounts  only  to 
the  introduction  of  nature-study  into  geography.  More 
would  be  gained  by  studying  these  natural  objects  and 
phenomena  in  a  separate  nature-study  period,  when  they 
could  be  discussed  more  in  detail.  They  should  be  still 
used  as  explanatory  of  the  geography  lesson. 

Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  a  certain  lesson 
should  be  called  geography  or  nature-study.  The  fact  is 
that  much  of  geography  is  pure  nature-study  and  might  very 
properly  be  called  so.  This  is  especially  so  with  the  phys- 
ical part  of  the  subject.  Of  course,  political  and  com- 
mercial geography  bring  in  more  of  the  human  element,  and 
yet  even  here  there  is  almost  constant  need  of  the  aid  of 
nature  lessons.  A  few  illustrations  of  correlation  between 
geography  and  nature-study  will  be  in  place. 

The  child's  introduction  to  formal  geography  should  be 
through  nature  lessons  on  the  surroundings  of  his  own  home. 
In  field  lessons  he  should  learn  to  recognize  the  simpler  earth 
features  and  note  their  causes  as  far  as  he  is  able,  and  also  to 
note  the  present  operation  of  the  earth-shaping  forces.  This 
might  be  called  Earth-Study.  Then  he  should  study  a  little 
about  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold,  atmospheric  moisture, 
clouds,  rain,  snow,  dew,  ice,  and  wind.  He  should  learn  the 
points  of  the  compass,  the  use  of  the  weather-vane  and  the 
thermometer.  This  might  be  called  Weather-Study.  A  few 
simple  astronomical  facts  appropriate  to  such  young  minds 
should  be  studied,  such  as  the  most  obvious  facts-  about  the 


56  NATURE-STUDY 

sun,  moon,  and  stars,  under  the  name  of  Sky-Study.  The 
occupations  of  man,  especially  those  depending  more  directly 
upon  natural  resources,  and  the  plants,  animals,  and  common 
minerals  that  man  makes  use  of,  should  be  studied.  All 


FIG.  4.    Brook  at  Work  Removing  a  Landslide. 

this  is  geographical  material.     In  this  way  the  study  of 
geography  is  opened  up  gradually  and  interestingly. 

When  formal  geography  is  taken  up,  there  is  still  use  for 
an  accompanying  course  of  nature-study.  The  complicated 
subject  of  the  winds,  including  the  trades,  can  never  be  well 
understood  without  some  lessons  in  the  physics  of  the  mat- 
ter. The  study  of  the  local  weather  in  nature-study  helps 
the  children  to  understand  better  the  climatic  conditions  in 
other  regions.  The  composition  of  the  air  should  be  studied 


CORRELATION  57 

in  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  atmosphere  in  geog- 
raphy, as  should  also  atmospheric  pressure  and  the  barom- 
eter. Coal,  marble,  iron,  and  other  ores,  natural  gas,  oil, 
and  other  mineral  products, — the  nature,  adaptation,  and 
uses  of  plants  and  animals  in  different  countries,  also  their 
distribution,  are  things  that  can  be  studied  better  in  nature- 
study  than  in  geography.  Geological  features,  such  as  the 
coral  islands,  mountains,  stream  action,  rock  strata,  glaciers, 
glacial  drift,  etc.,  should  be  considered  in  nature-study  as 
well  as  in  geography.  In  geography  the  physical  basis  for 
the  distribution  of  peoples,  limiting  of  countries,  location  of 
cities,  spread  of  immigration,  and  establishment  of  certain 
industries  in  certain  regions  should  be  well  noted. 

A  course  in  geography  with  a  correlated  course  in  nature- 
study  is  a  great  deal  richer,  more  interesting,  and  valuable 
on  account  of  this  correlation. 

Nature-Study  and  Art  Study 

Flowers,  butterflies,  and  birds  are  so  beautiful  and  rich  in 
color  that  they  appeal  to  the  artistic  sensibility  of  every 
child.  Nothing  better  can  be  found  as  subjects  for  lessons 
in  painting  and  drawing  than  the  forms  and  colors  of  nature. 
Because  of  their  objectiveness,  striking  colors,  and  beauty  of 
form,  the  objects  used  in  the  nature  lesson  may  again  be  used 
in  the  drawing  or  painting  lesson.  This  does  not  necessarily 
mean  the  prolongation  of  the  nature  lesson  under  the  guise 
of  an  art  lesson,  for  the  object  need  not  be  considered  from 
the  scientific  point  of  view  at  all,  but  purely  from  the  artistic 
side — beauty  of  color,  form,  grace,  proportion,  artistic  group- 
ing, etc.  In  this  way  the  material  for  both  lessons  may  be 
secured  at  the  same  time,  and  a  saving  of  energy  be  effected 


NATURE-STUDY 


for  the  busy  teacher.  And  the  fact  that  the  object  has  been 
observed  more  or  less  closely  in  the  nature  lesson  as  to  its 
structural  details,  colors,  etc.,  can  only  be  of  service  to  the 
art  lesson.  The  changing  seasons,  with  their  variety  of  life 
and  inanimate  scenes,  add  an  additional  interest  and  charm 
to  the  art  study. 

The  nature-study  material  is  especially  useful  in  the  art 

work  in  the  pri- 
mary grades, 
since  the  chil- 
dren are  still  ac- 
customed chief- 
ly to  objective 
thinking,  and 
their  imagina- 
tive and  crea- 
tive powers  are 
not  highly  de- 
veloped. There- 
fore  the  art 
work  must  be 

mainly  based  upon  the  observation  and  representation  of 
what  the  children  can  see,  that  is,  actual  things. 

The  children's  aesthetic  appreciation  of  nature  can  be  greatly 
developed  through  the  artistic  study  of  natural  objects  and 
scenes.  To  paint  a  bit  of  landscape  in  different  seasons  or  in 
different  lights,  to  observe  the  less  obvious,  though  no  less  pleas- 
ing, subtleties  of  harmony  of  colors,  subdued  hues,  and  pictu- 
resque details  can  only  increase  the  power  of  seeing  the  beauti- 
ful in  the  landscape.  Similarly,  the  representation  of  birds,  in- 
sects, flowers,  etc.,  makes  them  more  significant  and  interesting. 


FIG.  5.    Blue  Jay. 

(From  a  painting  by  a  pupil  of  the  fourth  grade.) 


CORRELATION  59 

There  is  also  a  reflex  benefit  from  the  art  lesson  upon  the 
nature  lesson,  if  the  two  have  been  correlated  as  suggested. 
A  child  that  has  drawn  carelessly  the  margin  and  shape  of  a 
leaf,  and  has  his  attention  called  to  his  inaccuracy,  will  have 
his  scientific  understanding  of  the  leaf  made  clearer  and  more 
definite.  The  visual  image  left  by  the  drawing  lesson  will 
assist  the  nature-study.  A  child  who  has  carefully  and 
accurately  drawn  a  hard  and  a  soft  maple  leaf  must  have  the 
similarity  and  also  the  difference  of  these  two  leaves  im- 
pressed upon  him  all  the  more  deeply.  The  correct  painting 
or  drawing  of  a  natural  object  clarifies  and  makes  more 
definite  the  mental  image  the  child  may  have  got  from  the 
object  in  the  nature  lesson. 

When  the  children  have  become  more  proficient  in  draw- 
ing, etc.,  they  should  be  required  more  and  more  frequently 
to  represent  the  objects  of  the  nature  lessons  with  the 
scientific  aspect  in  mind.  Require  them  to  illustrate  their 
nature  work  with  correct  and  carefully  drawn  illustrations 
showing  form,  color,  proportions,  details  of  structure,  rela- 
tionship of  parts,  diagrams,  development  of  growing  things, 
principles  of  experiments,  interrelations  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, structure  and  action  of  simple  machines,  plans  of  con- 
struction, plans. of  the  garden,  etc.  These  drawings  are 
avowedly  from  the  nature-study  point  of  view,  but  the  prin- 
ciples of  art  may  be  applied  to  them  nevertheless.  Many  of 
these  illustrations  may  be  made  first  purely  from  the  art  side 
and  afterwards  applied  to  the  nature  work,  such  as  written 
work,  records,  essays,  charts,  booklets,  herbaria,  portfolios,  etc. 

I  would  urge  the  use  of  diagrams  in  the  upper  grades. 
This  requires  a  certain  amount  of  maturity,  an  ability  to 
represent  what  the  mind  sees,  often  in  disregard  of  actual 


60  NATURE-STUDY 

form,  color,  and  details.  But  they  are  very  useful  in  show- 
ing relationship,  sequence,  simplified  plan  of  structure,  etc. 
Maps  and  construction  plans  are  thus  diagrammatic  and 
symbolic,  and  the  same  practice  should  be  extended  to  the 
representation  of  physical  apparatus,  physiological  structure, 
geological  formations,  flower  plans,  insect  structure,  etc.,  in 
elementary  science.  Such  drawings  often  show  relations 
better  than  do  the  more  artistic  and  complete  pictures. 
Black-board  drawing  should  be  required  more  than  is  usually 
the  case.  Let  the  children  tell  on  the  board  what  they  see. 
This  is  especially  good  for  rapid  and  diagrammatic  sketches. 
I  do  not  propose  to  say  much  in  regard  to  the  methods  and 
media  to  be  employed  in  the  art  work,  for  that  would  be 
infringing  too  much  upon  the  artist's  domain,  and  they  differ 
greatly  in  different  schools.  But  it  may  be  said  in  a  gen- 
eral way  that  color  seems  to  be  the  best  and  easiest  mode  of 
expression  in  the  lowest  grades,  and  should  be  the  first  and 
chief  medium  used.  Wash  drawings  in  ink  are  also  very 
successful,  especially  silhouettes  in  the  lowest  classes.  Crayon 
and  pencil  work  are  more  difficult,  but  when  once  acquired 
with  some  proficiency  they  are  excellent  for  pictorial  rep- 
resentation of  detailed  structure  study,  action,  illustrated 
stories,  rapid  sketches,  etc.  In  higher  grades,  drawing  is 
perhaps  the  best  method  for  developing  accuracy  in  line  and 
proportion.  Charcoal  is  also  a  very  successful  medium,  es- 
pecially in  study  of  scenery,  trees,  fruit,  etc.  Cut-outs  of 
paper,  made  freehand  and  mounted,  are  easy  and  interesting 
for  the  little  ones,  and  are  suitable  for  compositions  of  animal 
scenes,  child  life,  etc.  Modelling  may  be  applied  to  the  rep- 
resentation of  simple  animals,  flowers,  fruit,  vegetables,  etc., 
and  finds  a  limited  application  in  nature-study.  Modelling  of 


CORRELATION  61 

earth  features  in  sand,  etc.,  may  perhaps  be  referred  to  here. 
Design  draws  heavily  upon  the  nature-study  for  motives  and 
patterns.  The  most  usual  decorative  forms  of  design  are 
derived  from  nature.  Numerous  applications  of  this  study 
may  be  made  in  nature-study  itself,  as  in  the  decoration  of 
written  work,  essay  and  booklet  covers,  charts,  portfolios, 
note-books,  record-books,  etc.;  and,  of  course,  the  field  is 
unlimited  in  manual  work,  textiles,  basketry,  pottery,  and  in 
art  study. 

Suggestions  for  color  studies  and  combinations  may  be 
found  in  the  colors  of  flowers,  autumn  foliage,  insects, 
bird  plumage,  and  the  tints  of  the  water  and  sky.  We 
generally  begin  color  study  with  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
phenomena  of  nature,  the  spectrum. 

We  can  learn  a  great  deal  in  this  country  about  the  artistic 
arrangement  of  cut  flowers.  A  spray  of  blossoms  may  lose 
half  its  beauty  from  a  poor  arrangement  in  the  vase.  The 
Japanese  are  able  to  teach  us  much  in  this  respect. 

One  function  of  the  art  work  in  connection  with  nature- 
study  should  be  the  observation  of  the  beauty  in  common 
things.  Old  gnarled  trees,  a  neglected  corner,  the  common 
weeds,  etc.,  have  a  beauty  to  those  who  can  see  it. 

Somewhat  allied  to  art  study  is  the  artistic  planning  of 
flower-beds,  borders,  the  school  or  home  garden,  and  tree 
arrangement  on  the  lawn.  In  the  higher  grades  the  ele- 
ments of  landscape  gardening  may  be  successfully  taught. 
We  should,  however,  begin  in  the  lower  grades  to  cultivate  an 
appreciation  for  beautiful  school  grounds,  home  grounds,  bou- 
levards, and  parks,  and  develop  the  civic  improvement  idea. 

The  following  is  a  suggestion  of  a  few  art  topics  chosen 
from  the  nature  course.  It  may  be  adapted  to  the  artistic 


62  NATURE-STUDY 

principles  and  the  special  media  taught  in  the  different 
grades.  Numerous  suggestions  for  art  lessons  are  suggested 
in  the  course  of  study,  chapter  XX. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  PAINTING  IN  COLOR:  The  landscape  (forest, 
meadow,  fields,  water)  at  different  seasons  and  in  different 
lights.  Keep  a  monthly  record  of  a  bit  of  scenery,  showing 
seasonal  changes.  Grass  and  sky,  clouds,  trees,  and  bits  of 
water.  Summer  greens,  autumn  foliage,  late  autumn  browns, 
snow  scenes.  Bare  trees  and  forests,  and  evergreens  in  the 
snow.  Fruit  trees  in  blossom.  The  return  of  the  leaves. 
Gorgeous  sunsets  and  sunrise.  Cloudy  days  and  twilight 
effects.  Sun  and  moonlight  reflections  in  the  water.  Char- 
acteristic forms  of  trees  in  foliage.  Trees  with  fruit.  Nut- 
ting scenes.  The  wind  and  the  falling  leaves.  Farm  scenes, 
grain  fields,  the  harvest,  cornfields  and  pumpkins,  the  farm- 
yard. Fruit  studies,  nuts,  vegetables,  ears  of  corn,  heads  of 
grain.  Store  scenes  with  products  of  the  farm  or  orchard. 
Ferns  and  mosses,  toadstools,  shelf  fungi,  decaying  trees  and 
logs.  Grasses,  sedges,  cattails.  The  winds  of  March  with 
kites,  windmills,  and  sailboats.  Bonfire.  Candle.  Storms. 
Rainbow.  A  brook  with  trees.  Lakeshore.  Dunes.  Mead- 
ows. Marsh.  Hills  and  ravines.  Sliding  and  skating. 
Child  sports  with  nature  backgrounds.  Illustrations  of 
nature  stories  and  nature  myths.  Brightly  colored  birds, 
nests,  and  eggs.  Butterflies,  moths,  and  other  insects.  Gold- 
fish in  aquarium.  The  flowers  of  the  seasons.  Flowers 
and  butterflies,  bees,  etc.  Common  weeds.  Potted  plants 
and  window-box  plants.  Bulbs,  tulips,  etc.  Gardening 
scenes — spading,  raking,  sowing,  weeding,  watering.  Squir- 
rel, fox,  wolf,  cat,  dog,  horse,  cow,  sheep,  and  other  animals, 
or  illustrated  stories  about  them. 


CORRELATION 


SUBJECTS  FOR  WASHES  IN  INK:  Many  of  the  above  sub- 
jects may  be  represented  in  values  in  this  medium.  Silhou- 
ettes of  domestic  animals, 
birds,  fruit,  vegetables, 
seed-pods,  seeds,  grasses, 
child  sports,  illustrated 
animal  stories,  leaf  forms, 
trees.  Weather  scenes, 
those  above,  wind,  snow, 
snow  and  ice  sports. 
Twilight  and  cloudy  day 
scenes  are  especially  well 
represented  in  ink. 

CHARCOAL  is  an  excel- 
lent medium  for  shading 
of  fruit,  vegetables,  etc., 
for  landscapes,  foliage, 
sky  and  weather  scenes. 

DRAWINGS  — CRAYON, 
PENCIL,  AND  INK  :  Many 
of  the  topics  under  color. 
Fruits,  nuts,  vegetables, 
grass,  grain,  sedges,  seed- 
pods,  seeds,  seed  disper- 
sal, leaf  forms,  trees  bare 
to  show  branching,  trees 
in  foliage,  flower  parts, 
seed  study,  seedlings,  stages  of  growth,  opening  of  buds,  in- 
sect development,  growth  of  tadpoles,  landscape  sketching, 
plans  for  construction,  apparatus  and  experiments,  plant  and 
animal  structure  in  detail,  rapid  sketching  and  diagrams. 


FIG.  6.    Pupil's  Drawing.    Tulip. 


64  NATURE-STUDY 

MODELLING:  Fruit,  vegetables,  simple  animal  forms, 
flower-pots,  etc.  Geographical  modelling. 

DESIGN:  Leaves,  flowers,  seed-pods,  seeds,  fruits,  birds, 
simple  mammal  forms,  butterflies,  moths,  dragon-flies,  fish, 
etc.,  applied  with  or  without  conventionalizing  to  show  rep- 
etition, alternation,  rhythm,  and  balance  in  borders,  panels, 
and  surfaces.  Apply  to  useful  articles. 

CONSTRUCTION:  Models  of  houses,  stores,  gardens,  farm 
scenes,  transportation,  primitive  life  and  industry,  Indian 
life,  etc.  Making  bird-houses,  windmills,  scientific  toys, 
mechanical  models,  etc. 

Nature-Study  and  Literature 

There  is  a  great  abundance  of  "Nature  Readers."  Many 
of  them  are  of  questionable  value,  being  non-adapted,  un- 
scientific, sensational,  or  trivial.  Some  are  written  in  a 
simple  narrative  style  and  are  designed  to  impart  in- 
formation. Such  are  often  of  much  use  to  the  pupil 
and  the  teacher.  This  kind  should  be  found  in  every 
school  library.  Give  the  pupils  books  on  natural  history, 
hunting,  invention,  discovery,  and  travel.  Let  them  read 
these  in  the  nature  lesson,  and  at  home,  or  in  vacant 
periods. 

Nature  books  for  the  lowest  grades  are  written  usually  in  a 
style  supposed  to  be  more  pleasing  to  the  little  ones.  The 
facts  are  stated  in  child  language,  from  the  child's  point  of 
view,  and  with  surroundings  that  appeal  to  the  child's  tastes 
and  sympathies. 

One  style  especially  is  commonly  employed  in  primary 
readers,  namely,  that  of  personification.  All  kinds  of  natural 
objects  are  given  the  power  of  speech  and  are  made  to  relate 


CORRELATION  65 

the  story  of  their  lives  or  to  describe  themselves.  It  is  no 
doubt  true  that  children  like  this  style.  It  puts  them  on  a 
friendly  and  sympathetic  footing  with  these  natural  objects. 
And  so  long  as  the  essential  qualities  of  the  thing  are  pre- 
served there  can  be  no  objection  to  the  occasional  use  of 
such  literature. 

But  when  it  conies  to  the  use  of  myths  and  fairy  tales  as 
nature-study  material  that  is  used  for  teaching  about  natural 
things,  a  strong  protest  should  be  raised.  Their  subject- 
matter  is  admittedly  not  based  upon  fact.  The  mere  fact 
that  the  characters  in  them  are  often  animals,  plants,  and 
other  natural  objects  is  no  reason  why  they  should  be  used 
in  nature-study.  They  were  not  intended  to  teach  about 
nature.  Their  purpose  is  merely  to  entertain,  or  to  teach 
some  moral  truth,  and  in  literature,  not  nature-study,  they 
find  their  proper  place.  To  a  certain  extent  the  same  ob- 
jection holds  for  other  allegorical  or  figurative  representations 
of  nature.  We  find  much  of  this  in  our  best  writers,  Shake- 
speare, Milton,  Wordsworth,  Bryant,  and  others.  We  enjoy 
the  nature  literature  of  these  writers,  not  because  they  teach 
us  anything  about  the  natural  objects  referred  to,  but  rather 
because  they  reveal  to  us  some  moral,  aesthetic,  or  spiritual 
aspect  of  nature,  and  because  they  help  to  place  us  in  the 
proper  attitude  to  appreciate  it.  That  is,  these  writers 
bring  out  the  human  element  or  interest  in  nature  rather 
than  teach  botany,  zoology,  or  any  other  science.  The  proper 
place  for  this  kind  of  literature  is  not  in  science. 

There  is  no  particular  objection  to  the  introducing  or 
closing  a  lesson  with  some  literary  gem,  a  bit  of  personifica- 
tion, or  a  fairy  tale,  in  order  to  place  the  children  in  a  sym- 
pathetic and  attentive  attitude  toward  their  work,  or  to  give 


66  NATURE-STUDY 

them  the  poets'  interpfetation  of  the  relation  between  man 
and  nature.  But  to  attempt  to  use  such  literature  as  informa- 
tion material  is  wrong,  and  a  perversion  of  the  proper  use  of 
literature.  The  best  way  to  study  nature  is  not  to  read  some 
fine  lines  about  it,  but  to  take  the  actual  things  themselves 
and  observe  and  study  them.  The  excessive  use  of  all 
this  figurative  literature  and  fairy  lore  in  nature-study  is  to 
develop  gushing,  rhapsodizing,  and  sentimentalizing,  which 
may  reveal  some  enthusiasm  but  little  nature  knowledge. 
It  is  a  wrong  notion  that  a  six-year-old  child  cannot  un- 
derstand, and  does  not  like,  good,  simple,  straightforward 
language;  that  he  cannot  grasp  a  fact  unless  half -hidden 
under  metaphors;  that  he  has  a  natural  distaste  for  the  plain, 
unvarnished  truth;  and  that  the  only  way  to  give  him  a 
knowledge  of  nature  is  to  smuggle  it  in  under  the  guise  of  a 
myth  or  a  fairy  tale.  Conscious  effort  in  study  is  a  good 
thing.  It  develops  mental  strength  and  self-reliance  in 
learning. 

Science,  whether  studied  in  the  high  school  or  in  the  primary 
grades,  demands  that  the  minds  of  the  pupils  shall  follow  the 
laws  of  logical  reasoning,  that  the  imagination  be  controlled, 
and  that  the  physical  qualities  of  the  things  studied,  and  not 
the  creations  of  the  imagination,  shall  be  the  basis  of  the 
reasoning.  As  soon  as  imagination,  unchecked  by  the  facts 
in  the  case,  comes  in,  nature  is  no  longer  seen  in  its  true 
aspects. 

In  general,  it  seems  best  that  nature  stories  and  nature 
literature  should  be  read  after  the  nature  lesson  has  been  de- 
veloped in  the  legitimate  way.  Then  the  child  has  a  correct 
idea  of  the  object.  If  he  now  reads  a  figurative  poem,  a  fable, 
or  a  fairy  tale  in  which  the  object  of  the  lesson  appears 


CORRELATION  67 

as  a  character,  the  child  can  see  the  application  of  the  per- 
sonification, he  gets  the  point  of  the  story,  and  there  is  not 
so  much  danger  that  he  will  accept  as  true  any  assertion 
which  is  purely  fanciful. 


PART  II 
SPECIAL  METHODS  IN  BIOLOGY 


CHAPTER  VII 
ANIMAL  STUDY 

PRIMITIVE,  savage  man  subsisted  chiefly  upon  game  and 
fish.  The  old  hunting  instinct  is  not  dead  yet,  but  is  latent 
in  nearly  every  boy  and  man  to-day.  The  pastoral  stage, 
when  man  succeeded  in  domesticating  and  herding  sheep  and 
cattle,  was  of  great  importance  in  raising  him  in  civilization. 
His  existence  no  longer  depended  solely  upon  chance  and 
skill  in  the  chase.  He  became  more  provident,  and  also 
more  settled  nomadic,  instead  of  ranging  far  and  wide  for 
game.  A  still  greater  progress  was  made  when  he  succeeded 
in  domesticating  the  horse,  and  used  it  and  the  ox  as  beasts  of 
burden.  Now  he  was  able  to  use  greater  forces  than  his  own, 
and  he  made  great  strides  in  commerce  and  in  agriculture. 
The  races  that  never  domesticated  beasts  of  burden  remained 
in  a  backward  state.  The  American  Indians  had  not  learned 
to  use  any  strong,  serviceable  animal  for  carrying  or  dragging 
loads.  Along  with  food  and  work  animals,  primitive  man 
domesticated  a  few  other  animals,  such  as  the  cat  and  the 
dog,  more  for  pleasure  than  for  service. 

Thus  we  see  that  man  has  in  the  past  had  a  very  great  and 
practical  interest  in  the  animals.  The  horse,  the  cow,  sheep, 
poultry,  and  pets  are  just  as  necessary  to  us  as  they  were  to 
our  ancestors.  Therefore  animal  study  is  very  proper  for 

the  schools. 

71 


NATURE-STUDY 


A  large  element  in  the  life  of  a  child  is  the  companionship  of 
a  dog,  a  cat,  or  some  other  pet.  The  care  of  pets  and  the  play- 
ing with  them  make  a  very  practical  form  of  nature-study. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  treatment  of  farm  animals. 

The  wild  animals  are  even  more  interesting  than  the  more 
familiar,  though  more  important,  domesticated  animals. 
Their  very  rareness  and  shyness  make  them  interesting. 

The  most  mat- 
ter-of-fact, the 
most  unimagina- 
tive persons  will 
stop  to  look  at  a 
deer,  at  a  squir- 
rel, an  eagle,  a 
humming-bird, 
a  strange  beetle, 
or  a  beautiful 
butterfly.  Chil- 
dren greatly  en- 
joy the  study  of 
wild  animal  life. 
What  are  they 

interested  in?  They  want  to  know  what  the  creatures  do, 
how  they  live,  what  they  feed  upon,  what  good  or  harm  they 
do.  Let  this  be  a  guide  in  animal  study.  The  structure 
does  not  generally  interest  children  as  much  as  the  activities 
of  the  animals.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  structure 
is  studied  simply  in  itself,  without  relation  to  its  functions  or 
to  the  mode  of  life  of  the  creature. 

And  yet,  if  properly  presented,  this  study  of  structure  is  as 
essential  and  useful  as  the  study  of  the  habits.  When  we 


FIG.  7.    Good  Comrades. 


ANIMAL   STUDY  73 

teach  the  children  why  a  cat  can  climb  a  tree  or  lick  a  bone 
clean;  why  water  rolls  off  the  duck's  back;  why  the  duck 
is  such  a  good  swimmer;  how  the  toad  seizes  its  prey;  why  the 
rabbit  cannot  be  easily  seen;  how  a  squirrel  opens  a  nut;  why 
you  can  pull  an  angleworm  forward  but  not  backward 
from  its  hole;  how  a  fish  breathes;  how  and  why  a  cow  chews 
the  cud;  when  we  teach  about  these  habits  of  the  animals 
we  must  also  teach  structure.  The  structure  helps  to  explain 
the  habits  and  vice  versa,  and  must,  of  course,  be  studied  for 
purposes  of  identification  and  classification. 

Mere  structure  study,  details  of  anatomy,  unconnected  with 
functions  and  mode  of  life  are  very  uninteresting.  But  when  the 
beautiful  adaptations  or  fitness  of  organs  for  their  use,  the  gen- 
eral adaptation  of  form,  covering,  color,  etc.,  the  surrounding 
habitat,  or  the  mode  of  life  of  the  animal  are  made  clear,  then 
structure  study  is  intensely  interesting  as  well  as  instructive. 

What  kinds  of  animals  shall  be  studied  ?  Animals  of  many 
classes.  The  mammals  and  birds,  also  lower  forms,  such  as 
insects,  mollusks,  coral,  sponges— all  appeal  to  the  child  and 
he  can  learn  something  about  them  all.  The  little  ones  like  to 
study  about  their  pets,  the  domesticated  animals,  and  the 
commoner  wild  forms.  The  older  children  prefer  the  less 
familiar.  Old  and  young  like  to  study  about  the  animals  of 
distant  lands.  The  lion,  the  elephant,  the  eagle,  the  strange 
creatures  of  the  sea  appeal  to  their  admiration  or  imagination. 
By  all  means  include  bears,  wolves,  Kons,  tigers,  whales, 
seals,  etc.,  in  nature-study.  Let  children  study  the  Big  Game. 

Outline  of  the  Study  of  an  Animal 

\ 
What  should  be  taught  about  an  animal  depends  partly 

upon  the  age  of  the  pupil,  the  general  purpose  of  the  lesson, 


74 


NATURE-STUDY 


and  the  animal  itself.     But  for  a  general  descriptive  lesson 
the  following  are  points  to  consider. 

Primary  pupils  should  pay  more  attention  to  the  habits  and 
doings  of  the  animals  than  to  their  structure,  though  this 
should  not  be  entirely  neglected.  Older  children  should  go 
more  into  details  of  structure,  should  reason  out  the  adap- 
tations, and  attempt  more  comparison  and  classification. 
Primary  pupils  can  see  many  adaptations  to  function  and 

mode  of  life,  and 
they  can  also  make 
simple  grouping  or 
classification. 

In  the  lower 
grades  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  take  up 
first  the  habits  of 
an  animal,  then  its 
structure.  This  is 
more  interesting;  but  occasionally  the  structure  should  first 
be  studied,  particularly  when  an  animal  is  studied  as  a  type 
of  its  class. 

In  the  higher  grades  it  is  better  to  begin  more  frequently 
with  the  structure,  and  from  this  infer  points  in  habit  or  mode 
of  life,  even  as  to  habitat  and  food.  At  any  rate  the  habits 
will  be  better  understood  if  the  structure  has  been  first  studied. 
Note  only  such  details  of  structure  as  are  necessary  for  identi- 
fying the  animal,  or  for  its  classification,  if  that  is  desired. 
This  then  amounts  simply  to  a  study  of  the  gross  anatomy. 
Study  the  general  appearance  as  a  whole,  including  covering 
and  coloration.  Follow  some  orderly  method  of  studying 
the  chief  parts  of  the  body  and  its  appendages.  Do  not  with- 


FIG.  8.     Bat  with  Membrane  Wings. 


ANIMAL  STUDY  75 

out  good  reason  skip  about  from  head  to  feet  and  back  to 
head.  Not  all  the  parts  will  require  notice,  only  such  as  are 
characteristic  of  the  animal.  Bring  out  well  the  protective 
character  of  the  covering,  as  to  color,  texture,  warmth,  etc., 
and  the  fitness  of  the  different  organs  for  their  uses.  This 
may  be  done  when  the  habitat  and  the  mode  of  life  are  con- 
sidered. 

As  for  internal  structure,  we  need  very  little  of  that  in 
nature-study.  It  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  gills  of  fish,  to 
the  complex  stomach  of  ruminants,  to  the  air  tubes  in  insects, 
and  a  few  other  facts  of  internal  anatomy.  But  generally 
stick  to  externals. 

Under  habits  and  mode  of  life  consider  where  the  creature 
lives,  under  what  conditions,  and  note  how  it  is  adapted  in 
structure.  Note  the  food  and  the  feeding  habits,  and  the  rela- 
tion between  food  and  mouth  structure  and  organs  of  loco- 
motion. If  the  creature  is  alive  observe  as  many  of  the  life 
habits  as  possible,  movements,  feeding,  sleeping,  treatment 
of  young,  etc. 

Animal  stories  and  anecdotes  and  experiences  of  the  chil- 
dren should  be  related  in  this  connection. 

The  economic  aspect  of  the  subject  should  be  studied.  Is 
the  animal  of  any  use  to  man  ?  Is  it  harmful  to  man  or  other 
creatures?  How?  What  remedy  have  we  against  it,  if 
harmful?  What  useful  products  do  we  derive  from  it,  if 
any  ?  A  brief  study  might  be  made  of  the  modes  of  capture 
of  the  animal,  or  of  the  preparation  of  the  useful  products  de- 
rived. 

Animal  study  ought  to  be  comparative,  partly  for  the  sake 
of  association,  and  for  classification  where  that  is  desired. 
This  classification  should  be  untechnical  and  based  upon  a 


76  NATURE-STUDY 

simple  yet  accurate  comparison.  Where  a  regular  course 
in  nature-study  is  provided  for,  it  is  better  to  plan  the  animal 
lessons  in  such  a  way  that  the  animals  may  be  studied  com- 
paratively and  classified.  Thus  a  series  of  lessons  might  be 
given  on  a  group  of  mammals,  or  on  this  division  as  a  whole, 
or  on  the  insects,  or  the  birds,  etc.  Beautiful  and  instructive 
relations  could  then  be  seen,  which  could  never  have  been 
brought  out  in  a  promiscuous  study  of  plants  one  day,  birds 
the  next,  insects  the  next,  etc.,  without  a-  chance  for  classifi- 
cation. 

In  the  primary  grades  nature-study  is  chiefly  observation 
of  the  habits  and  general  appearances  of  creatures,  but  even 
here  a  little  comparison  and  broad  classification  would  be 
profitable. 

The  classification  need  not  be  emphasized,  and  certainly 
it  should  be  very  untechnical.  Sometimes  it  is  merely  suffi- 
cient to  group  the  animals  together  and  the  relationships  may 
be  incidentally  referred  to,  or  even  left  wholly  unmentioned, 
for  the  pupils  to  see  for  themselves  from  the  grouping.  Or  tell 
the  children  that  they  are  going  to  study  the  old  Tabby-Cat 
and  its  Wild  Relations,  or  Wild  Dogs,  or  the  Cow  and  her 
Wild  Cousins.  With  higher  grades  the  classification  should 
be  much  more  prominent  and  systematic. 

Courses  in  Mammal  Study 

It  is  not  very  material  with  which  group  of  mammals  we 
begin  in  nature-study.  In  general  begin  with  the  more 
familiar  as  types  and  then  study  the  stranger  forms. 
More  will  be  gained  if  a  series  of  lessons  can  be  given  upon 
the  mammals,  so  that  they  may  be  studied  comparatively 
and  classified.  Hence  it  is  well  to  select  the  mammals  be- 


ANIMAL  STUDY  77 

forehand  with  this  purpose  in  view.  Select  the  best  types 
and  the  most  important  mammals  under  those  types.  These 
should  be  such  as  are  found  in  the  child's  environment,  or 
such  as  are  frequently  mentioned  in  literature  and  in  geog- 
raphy. In  teaching  about  mammals  with  classification  in 
mind,  be  sure  to  bring  out  the  distinctive  characteristics  by 
which  the  animal  is  classified.  Be  sure  the  children  grasp 
the  idea  of  the  type  or  the  meaning  of  the  classification.  That 
is,  the  children  should  know  what  a  ruminant  is  when  rumi- 
nants are  studied,  and  just  why  the  dog,  the  fox,  and  the  wolf 
belong  to  the  same  group. 

In  the  first  lesson  in  the  course  the  definition  of  mammal 
may  be  derived  from  a  study  of  the  first  type.  Call  attention 
to  the  chief  differences  between  mammals  and  birds  and  other 
classes.  The  other  mammals  studied  afterwards  should  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  this  definition.  Another  way  of 
arriving  at  a  definition  or  the  idea  of  mammal  is  to  wait  till 
various  groups  of  mammals  have  been  studied,  and  then  to 
note  the  common  characteristics  of  the  different  animals,  and 
also  the  different  respects  in  which  the  mammals  differ  from 
birds,  reptiles,  etc.  In  this  way  the  children  reason  out  the 
definition  for  themselves. 

The  following  list  of  mammals  is  probably  too  compre- 
hensive for  most  schools,  but  it  is  suggestive  of  what  is 
meant  by  a.  course  in  comparative  mammal  study.  Sev- 
eral mammals  are  mentioned  under  each  type,  but  all  of 
them  need  not  be  studied  if  time  will  not  permit.  But  the 
greater  the  number  of  animals  of  a  class  the  better  the  op- 
portunity for  detailed  comparison.  This  course  is  in- 
tended to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  mammal  kingdom  as  a 
whole. 


78  NATURE-STUDY 

MAMMALS. 

I.    Carnivorous  Mammals  (Flesh-eaters). 

1.  Canine  (Dog)  Group:  Dog  (type),  fox,  wolf,  coyote. 

2.  Feline  (Cat)  Group:  Cat  (type),  wild  cat,  panther,  tiger, 
lion. 

3.  Bear  Group:  Bear,  raccoon,  mink,  weasel. 
II.    Herbivorous  Mammals  (Grass-eaters). 

1.  Ruminants  (Cud-chewers) :  Cow  (type),  bison;   sheep, 
goat;  deer,  reindeer;  camel. 

2.  Other  Herbivorous  Mammals:  Horse;  elephant;  pig. 

III.  Rodents  (Gnawers):  Squirrel  (type),  mouse,  rabbit,  beaver. 

IV.  Insect-eating  Mammals:  Bat,  mole. 
V.   Whale. 

VI.    The  Monkey  Tribe. 
VII.    Man,  in  relation  to  the  above. 

In  order  to  get  a  more  detailed  classification  we  must  re- 
strict ourselves  to  a  smaller  number  of  groups.  The  rodents 
by  themselves,  or  the  ruminants  alone,  would  offer  an  ex- 
cellent material  for  making  finer  distinctions. 

The  most  common  wild  animals  which  do  not  flee  into  the 
wilderness  at  the  approach  of  the  settler,  but  continue  to 
live  with  us  on  our  farms  and  even  in  our  towns  are  squirrels, 
chipmunks,  gophers,  woodchucks,  muskrats,  rabbits,  rats, 
and  mice.  These  little  animals  are  fairly  numerous  and  often 
quite  tame,  and  can  be  easily  observed  in  their  free  state. 
They  are  all  rodents  and  form  a  most  excellent  group  of  ani- 
mals for  comparative  study.  The  beaver,  the  prairie  dog, 
and  the  guinea  pig  may  be  added  to  the  list.  The  beaver  is 
especially  interesting  to  children  on  account  of  its  ingenious 
ways  and  its  association  with  the  early  settlement  of  this 
country,  when  beaver  fur  was  an  important  article  of  barter 
with  the  Indians  on  the  frontier. 


ANIMAL  STUDY 


79 


Another  good  way  to  study  the  mammals  is  to  consider  those 
which  furnish  us  with  food  and  clothing.  Study  the  general 
structure  of  these  animals,  their  life  habits,  and  the  way  in 
which  they  are  useful  to  man.  The  industries  connected 
with  them,  such  as  the  herding,  shipping,  meat  packing, 
leather  making,  textiles,  etc.,  should  also  be  referred  to. 

Study  the  cattle  industry.  Refer  to  the  ranch  life,  the 
shipment  of  the  cattle,  and  the  packing  of  the  meat  in  the 
large  cities.  Refer  to  the  dairy  industry  and  its  processes. 
Bring  out  the  dependence  of  man  on  animal  food.  These 
lessons  go  well  with  geography,  physiology,  and  domestic 
economy. 

Children  in  all  grades  are  much  interested  in  fur  and  fur- 
bearers.  Give  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  bear,  fox,  beaver, 
mink,  muskrat,  seal,  etc.  Do  not  neglect  the  hunting  and 
trapping.  Bring  out  the  adaptation  of  the  animals  to  the 
climate,  the  aquatic  life,  the  protective  coloration.  Note  the 
structure  of  the  fur,  and  how  it  differs  from  hair  and  wool. 
The  preparation  of  the  fur  for  the  market  is  an  interest- 
ing process.  Visit  a  fur  factory.  Note  what  articles  are  made 
of  fur.  These  lessons  are  most  appropriately  studied  in 
the  winter.  Examine  the  garments  worn  by  the  children 
and  try  to  distinguish  the  different  kinds  of  fur.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  commercial  names  are  no 
guarantee  that  the  fur  came  from  the  animal  to  which  it  is 
ascribed.  Sometimes  an  unusual  name  is  given  to  the  fur  of 
a  very  common  and  perhaps  despised  animal.  Thus  Genuine 
Brown  Marten  or  Alaska  Sable  is  simply  a  euphonious  name 
for  skunk.  Blended  River  Mink  means  muskrat,  and  Siberi- 
an Bear  is  simply  the  long-haired  wool  of  an  Asiatic  Goat. 

Leather  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  way.     In  the  higher 


8o  NATURE-STUDY 

grades  perform  simple  experiments  in  tanning.  Visit  a 
tannery  if  one  is  near.  Visit  a  shoemaker's  or  a  harness  shop, 
and  look  at  different  kinds  of  leather  and  see  how  they  work 
it.  Visit  a  shoe  factory  if  possible  and  see  how  a  shoe  is 
made.  Make  a  list  of  articles  made  of  leather.  This  subject 
correlates  well  with  the  geography  of  a  manufacturing  town. 
Study  the  wool  of  sheep  and  goats  in  a  like  manner.  Re- 
fer to  the  herding  of  sheep  and  Angora  goats  in  this  country; 
the  shearing,  spinning,  weaving.  Visit  a  spinning  and  weav- 
ing mill  if  possible.  Study  the  old-fashioned  spinning  wheel. 
Examine  the  children's  clothing,  and  show  the  wool  in  the 
cloth.  Bring  out  the  great  importance  of  wool  to  mankind. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
BIRD  STUDY 

BIRDS  are  the  most  fascinating  and  entertaining  of  our 
wild  animals.  Everybody  likes  the  little  feathered  song- 
sters. Their  nimble,  careless  ways,  their  evident  enjoyment 
of  their  freedom,  their  wonderful  power  of  flight,  their  cheer- 
ful twittering  or  their  bursts  of  melody  all  tend,  for  the  mo- 
ment at  least,  to  make  our  spirits  lighter  and  happier.  The 
birds  make  the  fields  and  woods  full  of  pleasure  for  us. 
.  Shy  as  most  birds  are,  many  kinds  seem  to  prefer  the 
neighborhood  of  man.  Man  plants  and  cultivates  vege- 
tables, grains,  and  fruit.  Since  every  cultivated  plant  has 
its  insect  enemies,  the  greater  the  cultivation  of  farms  and 
orchards,  the  greater  the  food  supply  of  the  birds.  Hence  we 
find  more  birds  about  farms  and  villages  than  in  the  dense 
forest  or  in  uncultivated  and  unsettled  regions.  This  ap- 
plies chiefly  to  the  song  birds,  and  is,  of  course,  not  true  of 
many  game  birds.  The  birds  are  a  very  great  help  to  the 
farmer  and  fruit  grower,  and  if  they  do  take  a  few  berries  or 
a  little  grain,  we  should  not  begrudge  it  to  them.  So  we 
have  a  practical  reason  why  we  are,  or  should  be,  interested 
in  the  birds. 

There  are  many  other  associations  that  make  us  love  the 
birds.  It  almost  seems  to  the  farmer's  boy  that  the  first  blue- 
bird is  the  cause  of  spring.  And  though  one  swallow  may 


81 


BIRD   STUDY  83 

not  make  a  summer,  still  it  is  a  sign  of  the  times.  The  fall 
migration  of  the  birds  is  a  warning  that  winter  is  nigh.  A 
touch  of  brightness  is  added  to  the  winter  landscape  by  the 
bluejays,  snowbirds,  and  chicadees  that  remain. 

Naturally,  the  open  country  and  the  semi-rural  outskirts 
of  our  cities  and  villages  are  the  places  where  birds  are  found 
in  greatest  abundance.  Yet  in  the  heart  of  New  York  City, 
in  Central  Park,  Mr.  Chapman  found  130  species  of  wild 
birds.  Many  stragglers  may  be  seen  in  our  shade  trees,  on 
our  streets,  on  the  lawns,  and  in  the  backyards  of  our  cities. 
Even  in  a  crowded  city  street  the  house  sparrow,  the  dove, 
and  the  martin  may  be  seen. 

People  would  derive  more  pleasure  from  the  birds  if  they 
knew  their  names  and  something  about  their  habits.  Says 
Neltje  Blanchan,  the  lover  and  writer  of  birds:  "Not  to 
have  as  much  as  a  bowing  acquaintance  with  the  birds  that 
nest  in  our  gardens,  or  under  the  very  eaves  of  our  houses; 
that  haunt  our  wood-piles;  keep  our  fruit  trees  free  from 
slugs;  waken  us  with  their  song,  and  enliven  our  walks 
along  the  roadside  and  through  the  woods,  seems  to  be,  at 
least,  a  breach  of  etiquette  toward  some  of  our  most  kindly 
disposed  neighbors."1 

One  result  of  our  modern  scientific  studies  in  the  high 
schools  and  colleges  was  till  very  recently  to  take  the  students 
away  from  the  real,  living  nature,  and  to  give  abstract  ideas 
of  physiology,  morphology,  etc.,  instead.  A  laboratory 
course  in  botany  with  the  microscope  may,  after  all,  not  make 
the  student  familiar  with  the  flowers  and  trees  in  the  fields 
and  woods.  Many  a  student  who  has  had  such  a  course 
cannot  name  and  give  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  wayside 

i  "Bird  Neighbors." 


84 


NATURE-STUDY 


flowers  and  the  shade  trees  along  the  streets.  Outdoor  study 
has  been  sacrificed  for  laboratory  work.  We  try  to  make 
microscope  scientists  instead  of  naturalists  in  our  higher 
schools.  Now,  I  believe  that  it  would  be  better  for  the  aver- 
age person  to  be  something  of  a  naturalist  than  a  laboratory 


FIG.  10.    Catbird  and  Nest. 

scientist,  for  the  former  has  a  happy,  sympathetic  interest  in 
outdoor  life  and  things,  while  the  other  has  only  the  narrower 
indoor  view.  I  do  not  by  any  means  wish  to  belittle  the 
importance  of  the  great  amount  of  scientific  work  done  in 
the  laboratories  by  competent  investigators.  But  what  I 
have  said  applies  to  the  average  person's  scientific  require- 
ments for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  everyday  life. 


BIRD   STUDY  85 

The  common  birds  are  thus  neglected  in  most  secondary 
schools,  and  those  who  are  called  upon  to  teach  find  them- 
selves deficient  in  the  knowledge  of  birds,  which  are  a  very 
important  subject  in  every  course  in  nature-study.  Teachers 
should  strive  to  make  up  this  lack.  There  are  many  excellent 
colored  bird  keys,  with  which  the  most  common  birds  can 
be  identified,  and  a  knowledge  of  them  will  not  only  be  of 
great  use  to  teachers  in  nature-study,  but  will  afford  much 
pleasure. 

Observing  the  Birds 

The  ideal  way  to  study  birds  is  to  go  out  and  observe  them 
in  their  native  haunts.  Most  birds  are  shy  and  rather  rare, 
so  it  is  not  practicable  generally  to  take  a  class  out  to  study 
any  particular  kinds.  They  would  fly  away,  or  hide,  at  the 
approach  of  the  class.  On  field  trips  with  a  class,  birds  may 
be  met  with  incidentally,  but  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  a 
lesson.  Of  course,  such  birds  as  English  sparrows,  doves, 
eaves-swallows,  bank-swallows,  which  are  tame  or  live  in 
colonies,  can  be  well  studied  with  a  class.  Or,  if  a  nest  has 
been  discovered  in  a  good  location,  the  class  may  make  ob- 
servations on  the  eggs,  the  young,  and  some  of  the  habits  of 
the  parent  birds  in  taking  care  of  the  young. 

But  the  best  bird  study  is  carried  on  by  individual  ob- 
servation, or  by  a  very  small  group  of  pupils.  Get  the 
children  to  be  on  the  watch  for  birds.  Have  the  older  ones 
make  notes  of  their  observations.  Perhaps  assign  special 
birds  to  individual  pupils  or  to  a  group.  For  instance,  have 
some  observe  and  report  on  the  English  sparrow,  others  on 
the  robin,  bluebird,  swallows,  etc.  Assign  especially  to  such 
pupils  at  whose  homes  certain  birds  have  nested  the  observa- 


86  NATURE-STUDY 

tion  of  the  habits  of  those  birds.  These  observations  may 
then  be  utilized  in  indoor  lessons. 

For  the  purposes  of  nature-study  it  is  not  necessary,  it  is 
even  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  nature-study,  to  shoot  the  birds 
in  order  to  study  them.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to 
have  a  museum  full  of  birds.  Instead,  observe  the  living 
bird,  in  its  free  state.  The  opera-glass  and  field-glass  are 
used  by  many  students  to  bring  the  birds  nearer. 

Mrs.  Florence  Merriam  Bailey,  who  has  done  so  much  to 
popularize  bird  study,  gives  the  following  directions  to  ob- 
servers of  birds  in  her  "Birds  Through  an  Opera-Glass," 
a  delightful  little  volume: 

FIRST. — Avoid  light  or  bright  colored  clothing.  Wear  clothing  that 
will  blend  with  the  background. 

SECOND. — Walk  slowly  and  noiselessly. 

THIRD. — Avoid  all  quick,  jerky  motions.  Raising  the  opera-glass 
too  suddenly  will  scare  away  many  birds. 

FOURTH. — Avoid  all  talking,  or  speak  only  in  undertone — a  most  im- 
portant but  obnoxious  rule  to  young  observers. 

FIFTH. — If  a  bird  was  singing,  but  stops  on  your  approach,  stand 
still  a  moment  and  encourage  him  by  answering  his  call.  If  he  gets 
interested,  he  will  often  let  you  creep  up  within  opera-glass  distance. 

SIXTH. — Make  a  practice  of  stopping  often  and  standing  perfectly 
still.  In  that  way  you  will  hear  voices  that  would  be  lost  if  you  were 
walking,  and  the  birds  come  to  the  spot  without  noticing  you,  when  they 
would  fly  away  if  they  were  to  see  you  or  hear  you  coming  toward  them. 

SEVENTH. — Conceal  yourself  by  leaning  against  a  tree,  or  "pulling  a 
branch  down  in  front  of  you.  The  best  way  of  all  is  to  select  a  good 
place  and  to  sit  there  quietly  for  several  hours,  to  see  what  will  come. 
Then  you  get  at  the  home  life  of  the  birds,  not  merely  seeing  them  wher 
they  are  on  their  guard. 

EIGHTH. — Gaze.  Let  your  eyes  rest  on  the  trees  in  front  of  you,  and 
if  a  leaf  stirs  or  a  twig  sways,  look  there  for  a  bird. 

In  going  to  look  for  birds,  it  is  important  to  consider  the  time  of  the, 


BIRD   STUDY  87 

day  and  the  weather.  Birds  usually  follow  the  sun.  In  spring  and  fall 
you  will  find  them  in  the  fields  and  orchards  in  the  morning,  but  when 
the  sun  has  warmed  the  south  side  of  the  woods  they  go  there;  and  in 
the  afternoon  they  follow  it  across  to  the  north  side.  During  the  heavy 
winds  and  storms  you  are  most  likely  to  find  birds  well  under  cover  of 
the  woods,  no  matter  at  what  time  of  day;  and  then,  often  on  the  side 
opposite  to  that  from  which  the  wind  comes. 

One  familiar  with  birds  knows  where  to  go  to  find  them. 
Birds  live  and  congregate  in  places  according  to  their  liking — 
places  of  safety  and  shelter,  where  food  is  plenty,  where  they 
can  build  their  homes.  Most  birds  like  the  water,  and  we 
find  them  near  the  shores  of  lakes  and  swamps,  the  banks  of 
rivers  and  meadow  brooks.  Sheltered  valleys,  which  keep  off 
the  winds,  with  water  near  at  hand,  attract  many  birds. 

The  cliffs,  islands,  and  bays  of  the  seashore  abound  with 
various  water-fowl,  ducks,  geese,  gulls,  gannets,  petrels,  and 
shore-birds.  Similar  water-birds  are  found  in  the  inland 
waters,  feeding  upon  wild  rice,  aquatic  plants  and  animals. 
They  build  their  homes  on  the  sedgy  banks.  Sloughs  and 
swamps  attract  herons,  cranes,  coots,  rails,  snipes,  and  other 
waders. 

Not  only  strictly  water-birds,  such  as  swimmers  and 
waders,  but  many  others  are  to  be  found  about  all  kinds  of 
waters.  Many  come  for  the  water,  many  to  feed  upon  the 
myriads  of  insects  and  other  animals  found  there,  others  to 
make  their  homes  in  the  inaccessible  swamp.  Here  we  find 
swallows,  flycatchers,  warblers,  tanagers,  kingfishers,  spar- 
rows, catbirds,  bobolinks,  thrushes,  blackbirds,  wrens,  hum- 
ming-birds, and  many  others. 

Many  birds  are  found  in  the  open  fields  and  near  the  edges 
of  woods,  such  as  field-sparrows,  blackbirds,  kingbirds, 


88  NATURE-STUDY 

meadow-larks,  bobolinks,  swallows,  orioles,  robins,  wood- 
peckers, quail,  grouse,  prairie  hens,  etc. 

In  the  woods  the  birds  are  not  so  abundant  nor  as  easily 
seen  as  in  more  open  places,  but  here  are  to  be  found  wood- 
peckers, nuthatches,  tree  creepers,  pewees,  thrushes,  ruffed 
grouse,  hawks,  owls,  whippoorwills,  tanagers,  warblers, 
vireos,  etc. 

But  we  do  not  have  to  go  far  from  home  to  find  birds.  The 
following  birds  are  frequently  seen  close  about  the  house,  or 
in  the  shade  trees  of  the  streets,  and  in  the  gardens  and 
orchards  near  the  house:  Robins,  wrens,  sparrows,  rose- 
breasted  grosbeaks,  bluejays,  kingbirds,  orioles,  bluebirds, 
woodpeckers,  catbirds,  blackbirds,  vireos,  warblers,  nut- 
hatches, brown  creepers,  phoebes,  chickadees,  juncos,  snow- 
birds, kinglets,  thistlebirds,  waxwings,  humming-birds,  with 
English  sparrows  nesting  in  every  available  place  about  the 
house,  eaves-swallows  under  the  eaves,  and  chimney-swifts 
in  the  chimneys,  purple  martins  in  the  bird-cots,  and  owls  in 
belfry  towers. 

Bird  study  is  an  excellent  hobby  for  the  teacher.  A 
good  bird  key,  such  as  Chapman's  "Color  Key,"  Bailey's 
"Birds  of  the  Western  United  States,"  Nuttal's  "Birds 
of  the  United  States,"  Apgar's  "Birds  of  the  United  States," 
or  Chapman's  "Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  North-Eastern 
United  States,"  a  field-glass  (not  absolutely  necessary), 
a  love  for  the  birds,  and  a  watchful  eye  are  all  that  is 
heeded  for  the  study.  One  can  pursue  it  all  through  life. 
It  will  afford  a  perennial  pleasure,  and  add  interest  to  every 
journey.  Moreover,  it  is  a  hobby  through  which  one  can 
give  to  others  some  pleasure.  For  most  persons  are  willing 
and  eager  to  learn  about  the  birds. 


BIRD   STUDY  89 

Bird  Lessons  in  the  Grades 

The  most  appropriate  time  to  study  the  birds  is  in  the  spring, 
at  the  time  of  their  migration  from  the  South.  Then  they  are 
apparently  most  abundant  and  are  the  tamest.  Moreover, 
their  interesting  mating  habits  can  then  be  seen.  The  first 
robin  or  the  first  bluebird  always  causes  a  mild  excitement. 
It  is  then  that  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  returning  birds  should 
be  given  in  any  grade.  This  study  should  contain  enough 
of  the  structure  and  coloration  to  serve  for  identification.  Of 
course  the  habits  will  form  a  chief  feature  of  the  work.  Bring 
out  the  reasons  for  the  subdued  or  the  conspicuous  colors,  and 
by  all  means  bring  out  well  the  economic  value  of  the  birds. 

As  with  mammals,  so  bird  study  ought  to  be  comparative, 
and  there  should  be  simple  classification  according  to  structure 
or  according  to  habits.  Even  primary  children  can  class 
the  duck  and  goose  together  as  swimmers,  and  differentiate 
them  from  the  wading  heron  and  bittern.  Much  more  of 
this  may  be  expected  from  older  pupils. 

For  the  purposes  of  nature-study  it  is  sufficient  to  class  the 
birds  as  Swimmers,  Waders  and  Shorebirds,  Scratching 
Birds,  Birds  of  Prey  or  Robbers,  Climbers,  Perching  and 
Song  Birds.  Avoid  the  technicalities  of  scientific  ornithology, 
and  yet  try  to  bring  out  the  fact  of  the  relationship  of  birds. 

The  following  list  of  birds  is  suggested  as  suitable  for 
nature-study.  These  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  common 
and  native  to  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  United 
States: 

SWIMMERS:  Loon,  tern,  gull,  pelican,  duck,  goose,  swan. 

WADERS  AND  SHOREBIRDS:  Blue  heron,  bittern,  crane, 
stork;  coot,  rail;  sandpiper,  snipe,  plover. 


90  NATURE-STUDY 

SCRATCHING  BIRDS  :  Chicken,  turkey,  quail,  grouse,  prairie 
hen,  peacock. 

ROBBERS:  Hawk,  golden  eagle,  bald  eagle;  snowy  owl, 
great  horned  owl,  screech  owl,  barred  owl. 

CLIMBERS:  Flicker,  sap  sucker,  downy  woodpecker,  red- 
headed woodpecker. 

PERCHERS  AND  SONG  BIRDS:  Kingbird,  crow,  bluejay, 
common  blackbird,  yellow-headed  blackbird,  red-winged 
blackbird,  oriole,  cowbird,  meadow-lark,  bobolink,  indigo- 
bird,  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  cardinal,  song  sparrow,  junco 
or  snowbird,  thistlebird,  canary,  English  sparrow,  scar- 
let tanager,  barn-swallow,  bank-swallow,  martin,  waxwing, 
shrike,  summer  yellowbird,  zebrabird,  catbird,  house  wren, 
brown  thrasher,  thrush,  robin,  bluebird. 

MISCELLANEOUS:  Dove,  pigeon,  parrot,  kingfisher,  whip- 
poorwill,  chimney-swift,  humming-bird,  ostrich. 

When  the  birds  begin  to  return  from  the  South,  in  Febru- 
ary or  March,  make  a  bird  calendar  on  the  black-board  or  in 
notebooks : 

Bird  Calendar 


Bird 

Date 

Place 

By  whom  seen 

•narks 

The  calendar  may  stimulate  the  children  to  make  personal 
observations.  Be  reasonably  sure  that  the  birds  are  reported 
correctly.  Often  children  and  others  name  birds  incorrectly 
through  ignorance  or  careless  observation. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  migration  period  the  calendar  should 
be  examined,  and  conclusions  drawn  from  it.  Note  the  kind 
of  birds  that  return  first,  those  that  come  last.  Try  to  make 


BIRD   STUDY  91 

out  some  relation  between  the  birds  and  the  food  they  may 
expect  to  find  on  their  return. 

Even  though  no  regular  calendar  is  kept  of  the  returning 
birds  the  teacher  should,  as  far  as  possible,  call  attention  to 
the  birds  that  come  back  and  should  name  them  for  the  pupils. 
This  would  be  profitable  in  all  the  grades. 

In  the  fall  the  southward  flight  of  the  birds  should  be  ob- 
served. Have  the  children  note  their  gradual  disappearance, 
and  what  species  go  earliest  and  which  last.  Let  the  children 
infer  some  of  the  probable  reasons  for  the  migration.  Refer 
to  the  known  destinations  of  certain  species,  and  let  the  pupils 
consider  why  they  are  going  there.  Use  the  map  and  trace 
out  the  chief  migration  routes  as  far  as  is  known.  Have  the 
children  observe  the  manner  of  migration.  Do  the  birds 
fly  singly  or  in  flocks?  Direct  or  by  stages?  By  day  or 
by  night?  Are  the  birds  singing  much?  Can  the  young 
be  distinguished  from  the  old  ?  All  these  observations  will 
have  to  be  made  incidentally  by  the  children,  but  they 
should  be  reviewed  and  summarized  in  a  school-room 
lesson. 

In  the  middle  of  winter  inquire  of  the  children  if  any  birds 
are  to  be  seen.  Ask  them  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  a  week  or 
so  and  have  them  report  all  the  birds  seen.  A  list  of  the 
birds  noted  will  probably  include  the  English  sparrow, 
dove,  snowbird,  chicadee,  downy  woodpecker,  nuthatch, 
bluejay,  hawk,  owl,  and  perhaps  others.  Let  the  children 
find  out  what  these  birds  feed  upon,  where  they  sleep, 
and  any  other  interesting  habits,  and  note  their  general 
appearance.  Suggest  that  the  children  scatter  food  to  the 
birds. 

Some  very  interesting,  as  well  as  profitable,  lessons  may  be 


92 


NATURE-STUDY 


given  on  the  structure  of  birds  in  general.     Make  a  study 
of  feathers,  their  structure,  colors  and  various  uses. 

The  wing  of  a  bird,  the  bones,  feathers,  shapes  of  wings  of 

different  kinds  of  birds, 
and  the  power  of  flight 
form  another  good 
subject. 

The  legs  and  feet 
of  different  classes  of 
birds  should  be 
studied,  especially  with 
reference  to  their 
adaptation  to  use  and 
environment. 

Similarly  study  the 
different  types  of  bills 
with  reference  to  the 
food  or  other  pur- 
poses. Bring  out  the 
fact  that  the  feet  and 

the  bills  are  among  the  chief  features  used  in  classifying  the 
birds. 

The  nesting  habits  of  birds  should  be  observed  by  chil- 
dren. At  the  same  time  teach  them  to  be  kind  to  the  birds, 
never  to  kill  those  that  are  harmless  and  useful,  and  not  to 
rob  or  destroy  the  nests.  Let  them  try  to  encourage  the  birds 
to  build  near  their  homes.  Let  them  scatter  food,  expose 
bits  of  thread,  wool,  horse-hair,  cotton,  feathers,  etc.,  for  the 
birds  to  use  in  nest  building. 

Have  the  children  observe  how  the  birds  build  the  nest. 
Where  is  the  nest  located  ?  Thus  robins  nest  in  trees,  bank- 


FIG.  ii.    Wing  of  Chicken  with  Quills  and  Coverts. 


BIRD   STUDY 


93 


swallows  burrow  into  the  bluffs,  barn-swallows  nest  in 
barns,  and  eaves-swallows  under  the  eaves  of  buildings. 
Is  there  any  attempt  made  by  the  birds  to  conceal  the  nest  ? 
Is  the  nest  in  a  safe  place?  Some  nests,  like  ground- 
sparrows'  "  nests,  are  hard  to  locate  because  they  are  so 
cunningly  concealed  in  the  grass.  The  oriole's  nest  is  on  a 
high  branch  almost  at  the  tip.  Does  any  particular  species 
select  a  certain  kind  of  tree?  How  about  the  oriole? 
What  materials  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the  nest? 
Robins  and  barn-swallows  use  mud  with  twigs  and  grass. 
The  red-winged 
blackbird  weaves  a 
pretty  nest  of  the 
leaves  of  sedges  and 
grasses  in  the 
swamps.  The  hair- 
bird  is  so-called  from 
the  fact  that  it  uses 
horse-hair  chiefly  in 
the  making  of  its 
nest.  Note  the  dif- 
ference in  skill  shown 
by  different  species 
of  birds  in  choosing 
a  location,  and  in 
the  construction  of 
the  nest.  Some  birds 
make  hardly  any  nest  at  all,  while  others,  like  the  oriole  and 
the  barn-swallow,  make  beautiful  and  elaborate  nests.  Ob- 
serve how  the  birds  carry  the  building  material,  and  how  they 
work  it  into  the  nest.  Do  both  mates  work? 


FIG.  12.    Wing  of  Chicken. 

(Wing  coverts  removed  to  show  attachment  of  quills  to  forearm 
and  hand.) 


94 


NATURE-STUDY 


Later  in  the  summer,  when  the  birds  are  through  with  their 
nests,  collect  different  kinds  and  label  them  properly,  telling 
the  species  to  which  they  belong.  A  neat  way  to  mount  them 
is  to  fix  them  in  a  wire  frame  on  a  wooden  base.  These  nests 
would  make  a  very  useful  addition  to  the  school  museum  or 
cabinet,  and  would  be  very  desirable  in  the  next  year's  bird 
study.  If  the  branches  to  which  the  nests  are  attached  are 
small,  the  nest  may  be  left  on  the  branch  to  show  the  method 


FIG.  13.     Grass  and  Mud  Nest  of  a  Barn-Swallow. 

of  attachment.  Cut  off  the  piece  of  a  log  containing  a  wood- 
pecker's nest,  and  break  away  a  portion  of  the  side  to  show 
the  depth  of  the  nest.  If  no  other  species  of  birds  can  be 
found  to  study  during  the  nect-building  period,  the  English 
sparrow  will  probably  be  found  almost  anywhere  in  towns. 
Although  their  nest  is  not  a  model  of  beauty  and  skill,  it 
nevertheless  shows  well  the  activity  of  the  birds  that  make  it. 
Examine  the  eggs.  Do  not  take  them  out  of  the  nest. 
Note  the  color,  their  number  and  size.  Try  to  find  out  how 
long  it  takes  the  mother  bird  to  hatch  the  eggs.  Try  to 


BIRD   STUDY  95 

accustom  the  parent  birds  to  your  presence  after  the  eggs  are 
laid,  and  gradually,  day  by  day,  you  may  be  able  to  come  a 
little  closer  for  observation.  Keep  this  up  after  the  young 
are  hatched.  Never  frighten  the  birds  by  noise  or  rapid 
motions.  Some  birds  become  comparatively  tame  toward 
those  whom  they  have  learned  to  trust.  An  acquaintance  of 


FlG.  14.    Nest  of  Chipping-Sparrow. 

this  sort  affords  considerable  pleasure  and  also  an  oppor- 
tunity to  learn  about  bird  ways. 

At  this  time  let  the  children  also  note  the  songs  and  calls 
of  the  birds,  and  try  to  recognize  them  by  their  notes.  Have 
them  learn  what  time  of  the  day  the  birds  sing  most,  what 
birds  are  the  best  songsters,  which  have  the  power  of  sus- 
tained singing,  which  have  short  snatches  of  music,  and  which 
simply  musical  calls.  Let  them  imitate  these  songs  and  calls. 


96  NATURE-STUDY 

Let  them  also  study  the  subject  of  color  in  birds.  The 
birds  of  bright  and  conspicuous  color  will  interest  the  lit- 
tle children  most.  Let  them  consider  these  colors  chiefly 
from  the  aesthetic  point  of  view.  The  older  pupils  will  be 
able  to  appreciate  something  of  the  theory  that  the  bright 
coloration  of  birds  is  a  mating  device;  that  the  female  birds 
are  supposed  to  select  the  handsomest  males,  and  so  the 
brightest  colors  are  transmitted  in  the  race. 

But  the  fact  should  be  brought  out  that  bright  coloration 
is  almost  the  exception  to  the  rule,  for  the  great  majority  of 
species  are  inconspicuously  colored  in  drab,  gray,  brown,  or 
olive,  so  as  to  blend  with  and  be  concealed  against  the  back- 
ground of  water,  grass,  or  foliage.  This  is  an  interesting 
observation  for  the  older  children.  Let  them  be  on  the  look- 
out for  birds  that  are  protectively  colored  in  a  remarkable 
degree,  and  let  them  explain  the  adaptation  in  each  case. 
Call  attention  to  the  case  of  the  scarlet  tanager,  rose-breasted 
grosbeak,  red-winged  blackbird,  etc.  Here  the  male  bird  is 
handsomely  and  conspicuously  colored,  while  the  mate  is 
protectively  colored.  Ask  the  children  of  what  advantage 
this  difference  in  coloration  is. 

In  this  connection,  refer  to  the  natural  enemies  of  the 
birds.  The  reason  for  the  protective  coloration  will  then  be 
clearer.  Ask  the  children  not  to  add  themselves  to  the  list 
of  enemies. 

Another  interesting  subject  and  one  on  which  observa- 
tions are  readily  made  is  the  way  in  which  the  old  birds  care 
for  the  young.  Note  how  solicitous  the  parents  are  for  the 
young.  Observe  how  hard  they  have  to  work  to  satisfy  the 
hungry  mouths.  Count  the  number  of  trips  the  parents  make 
with  food  in  a  certain  time,  say  an  hour.  From  this  the 


BIRD   STUDY  97 

pupils  would  get  a  good  idea  of  the  task  of  feeding.  Also 
let  the  children  observe,  if  possible,  what  the  young  are  fed 
with.  In  this  way  they  will  get  an  idea  of  the  usefulness  of 
birds  as  worm  and  insect  exterminators. 

Discuss  with  the  pupils  the  economic  importance  of  birds. 


FIG.  15.     Nest  of  Wood  Thrush. 

Tell  about  the  experiments  and  investigations  made  by  orni- 
thologists of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  by  other  bird  students,  which  show  the  great  usefulness 
of  birds  to  the  gardener,  fruit  grower,  and  farmer,  in  ridding 
them  of  many  troublesome  insect  pests.  Even  if  a  bird  does 
take  a  little  fruit  or  does  some  other  harm,  it  should  be 
credited  with  the  good  it  does.  Counteract  the  prejudice 
that  many  have  toward  certain  birds  which,  on  the  whole, 


98  NATURE-STUDY 

are  really  useful,  yet  are  generally  killed.  For  example, 
hawks  and  owls  have  a  bad  reputation  with  the  farmer 
and  others,  as  chicken  and  turkey  thieves.  But  it  has 
been  shown  that  most  hawks  and  owls  destroy  much  more 
harmful  vermin  than  chickens.  Try  to  get  the  children 
to  appreciate  the  birds  as  our  friends  and  helpers,  and  to 
wish  to  protect  rather  than  destroy  them. 

Note  how  the  young  learn  to  fly.  First  observe  the  growth 
of  the  plumage  on  the  nestlings.  *What  are  the  birds  covered 
with  when  first  hatched?  Where  do  the  feathers  first  ap- 
pear? How  long  before  the  young  are  full  fledged?  Do 
the  old  birds  seem  to  show  the  young  how  to  fly?  It  often 
happens  that  some  of  the  young  are  frightened  or  crowded 
out  of  the  nest  before  they  are  really  able  to  fly.  If  fairly 
well  fledged,  it  is  probably  useless  to  return  the  waif  to  the 
nest,  as  it  will  probably  fall  out  again.  These  helpless  birds 
are  easy  victims  to  the  weather,  cats  and  dogs,  and  bad 
boys.  Here  would  be  an  opportunity  to  help.  Catch  the 
young  bird,  scaring  and  chasing  it  as  little  as  possible.  Wait 
till  it  goes  to  sleep  at  night,  if  possible,  then  pick  it  up  and 
place  it  in  a  cage.  It  will  probably  not  know  enough  to  feed 
itself,  and  will  have  to  be  fed  by  hand  on  insects  and  worms. 
If  the-cage  is  placed  where  the  old  birds  can  see  it,  they -will 
often  come  and  feed  their  child.  Hand-feeding  of  young 
birds  is  not  an  easy  task,  but  the  patience  and  diligence 
would  be  rewarded  by  having  a  tame  bird.  After  the  bird 
is  tame  it  should  be  liberated.  It  will  probably  remain 
about  the  place,  and  will  be  a  greater  pleasure  than  if  kept 
in  confinement. 


CHAPTER  IX 
BIRDS 

BIRDS  are  feathered  creatures.  This  is  a  sufficient  defini- 
tion. Flight  is  generally  associated  with  the  thought  of  birds, 
but  this  power  is  not  peculiar  to  them,  for  many  other  creat- 
ures besides  birds  fly,  such  as  insects  and  bats,  and  formerly 
there  were  reptiles  that  flew.  Flying  squirrels,  flying  fishes, 
and  flying  toads  soar  on  membranous  expansions  of  the  skin. 
But  none  of  these  animals  fly,  like  the  birds,  by  means  of 
feathers. 

The  feet  of  loons,  ducks,  and  geese  are  covered  with  a 
scaly  skin,  reminding  one  forcibly  of  the  skin  on  the  feet  of  a 
turtle.  In  the  lower  orders  of  the  birds  these  scales  are 
small  and  reptilian,  but  they  coalesce  more  and  more  into 
larger  and  more  horny  plates  as  we  go  up  the  scale,  till  in 
the  robin  and  bluebird  the  tarsus  is  covered  with  a  continuous 
plate  along  the  front. 

The  homology  of  a  bird's  wing  is  instructive.  In  general, 
it  corresponds  to  our  arm.  The  quill  feathers  are  attached 
to  the  forearm  and  to  the  hand.  The  bones  of  the  latter  are 
generally  grown  together  and  unjointed,  the  thumb  alone 
being  free. 

The  leg  bones  also  correspond  to  those  in  the  mammal. 
The  prominent  bone,  usually  unfeathered,  is  the  tarsus  or 
ankle  bone,  the  heel  being  just  above  it.  The  knee  bends 


ioo  NATURE-STUDY 

forward,  and  is  between  the  tibia  ("drumstick")  and  the 
femur  ("second  joint").  The  latter  is  generally  not  con- 
spicuous in  a  feathered  bird  and  is  often  within  the  body. 

The  feet  of  birds  are  varied  and  wonderfully  adapted 
to  their  habits.  Swimmers  have  webbed  paddle  feet,  shore 
and  marsh  birds  have  partially  webbed  feet,  or  their  toes  are 
bordered  with  lobes  or  membranous  margins  that  enable 
them  to  walk  on  swampy  ground.  Birds  of  prey  have 
powerful  grasping  feet  with  long,  sharp,  and  curving  claws, 
adapted  well  to  seize  and  carry  off  their  prey.  Perching 
birds  have  three  toes  in  front  and  one  behind,  which  are 
admirably  suited  to  grasping  a  limb.  The  grasping  is 
automatic,  and  the  bird  when  asleep  on  the  perch  is  in  no 
danger  of  loosening  its  hold  and  falling  off.  Woodpeckers 
that  run  up  the  side  of  a  tree  and  have  to  cling  there  while 
pecking  into  the  wood  have  strong  feet  with  two  toes  in  front 
and  two  behind.  Birds,  like  the  chicken,  that  scratch  for  a 
living  have  the  hind  toe  somewhat  raised  and  shorter  than 
the  others.  This  is  probably  to  keep  the  hind  toe  out  of 
the  way  while  scratching. 

The  bills  of  birds  are  as  varied  as  their  feet,  if  not  more 
so.  They  are  beautifully  adapted  to  the  food  and  feeding 
habits  of  the  bird.  There  are  the  strong  hooked  beaks  of 
the  hawks  and  owls,  well  suited  for  holding  and  tearing  the 
prey;  the  strong  conical  bills  of  the  seed  and  grain  eaters, 
for  picking  and  shelling  the  seeds;  the  more  slender  and 
softer  bills  of  the  insect-eating  birds;  the  long,  slender  bills 
of  storks  and  herons,  well  adapted  for  work  in  the  swamps 
and  edges  of  ponds;  the  long  and  often  touch-sensitive  bills 
of  the  shore  birds  which  poke  around  in  the  mud  for  their 
food;  there  are  strainers  for  the  ducks;  pouched  beaks  for 


BIRDS         X J   ^   -     —  j,oi 

pelicans;  hard  ivory-tipped  bills  for  the  wood-boring  wood- 
peckers, etc. 

The  technical  classification  of  birds  is  based  more  upon  the 
structure  of  feet  and  bills  and  internal  structure  than  upon 
color,  size,  or  habit,  although,  of  course,  these  are  also  used. 

Feathers  are  skin  modifications,  as  are  scales  and  hair. 
They  serve  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  downy  under- 
feathers  are  the  warm  underwear.  We  utilize  them  for 
pillows  and  warm  feather-beds.  Feathers  are  non-conductors 
of  heat,  and  thus  keep  in  the  heat  of  the  body;  but  the  air 
included  between  the  feathers  also  acts  as  a  non-conductor. 
On  cold  days  the  birds  may  be  seen  ruffling  up  their  feathers 
so  as  to  include  more  air,  thus  utilizing  the  principle  of  the 
"dead  air  space"  which  we  employ  in  our  storm-windows. 
Birds  that  live  in  the  water  have  their  bodies  more  thickly 
covered  with  down  than  other  birds.  Nestlings  and  pre- 
cocial  birds,  like  young  chickens,  have  another  kind  of  down. 
This  is  pushed  out  as  the  real  feathers  develop.  There  are 
also  slender  hair-like  feathers,  called  pin-feathers,  which  the 
cook  singes  off  the  fowl.  These  are  rudimentary  feathers 
with  only  a  shaft. 

The  plumage  feathers  cover  the  down  feathers  and  add  to 
the  warmth.  In  some  birds,  as  in  the  owls,  the  plumage 
feathers  are  very  soft  and  render  the  flight  noiseless.  But 
in  most  birds  the  chief  function  of  plumage  feathers  seems 
to  be  to  give  the  coloration — for  beauty  or  for  protection. 
These  feathers  in  nearly  all  kinds  of  birds  do  not  cover  the 
whole  body,  but  grow  in  distinct  tracts,  yet  overlapping  the 
bare  areas. 

On  the  tail  and  wings  are  long  stiff  feathers,  called  quills, 
which  are  used  in  flying.  These  may  be  taken  as  typical. 


IQS 


NATURE-STUDY 


They  consist  of  a  hollow  quill  stem  and  a  solid  elonga- 
tion, the  shaft.  On  the  shaft  at  each  side  are  fine  branches 
called  barbs.  These  are  again  divided,  and  sometimes 
subdivided  into  smaller  branches  called  barbules  and  proc- 
esses.  These  barbules  and  processes  interlock  to  form 

a  stiff,  resisting 
surface.  The 
shaft  and  barbs 
form  the  vane. 

Besides  these 
feathers  there 
are  various  mod- 
ifications in  dif- 
ferent birds,such 
as  the  beau- 
tiful plumes  on 
the  heads,  chest, 
shoulders,  hips, 
etc.,  of  ostriches, 
herons,  and 
other  birds;  the 
hair-like  tuft  on 
the  breast  of  the  turkey  cock,  etc.  These  are  used  mainly 
for  decoration. 

Birds  raise  and  maintain  themselves  in  the  air  not  by 
their  relative  lightness  (as  is  the  case  with  a  balloon),  but  by 
the  reaction  of  the  air  against  the  powerful  wing  strokes, 
or  else  by  the  force  of  winds  against  the  wing  and  tail 
surfaces.  Most  birds  that  flap  their  wings  in  flight  use 
the  first  principle,  while  the  hawk,  which  circles  around  high 
in  the  air  without  apparently  a  stroke  of  the  wing,  and  only 


FIG.  16.    Chimney  Swift. 
(Not  a  swallow.) 


BIRDS  103 

occasionally  tilting  the  wings  and  tail  to  better  catch  the 
shifting  breezes,  uses  the  latter  method.  Most  birds  fly 
mainly  by  strength,  but  the  hawk,  eagle,  and  albatross  fly  by 
skill;  that  is,  they  soar  on  the  wind  without  much  muscular 
effort. 

The  wing  of  a  bird  is  suited  to  its  peculiar  needs.  Gulls, 
hawks,  and  swallows,,  much  on  the  wing,  have  large  wings, 
and  chiefly  soar.  The  robins,  sparrows,  blackbirds,  etc., 
which  live  mainly  on  the  ground,  or  skulk  about  the  bushes,  or 
flit  among  the  trees,  do  not  need  the  power  of  long  flight. 
They  generally  fly  by  easy  stages.  But  they  need  the  power 
of  rising  quickly  from  the  ground  when  startled.  .So  their 
wings  are  broad,  rounded,  and  concave  underneath,  so  as 
to  resist  the  air  well.  The  quail,  partridge,  and  sparrow 
cause  a  rustling  sound  by  the  rapid  fluttering  of  their  wings 
on  starting  from  the  ground.  The  humming-bird  makes  its 
wings  go  so  fast  that  you  cannot  see  them,  and  the  buzzing  of 
the  wings  gives  it  its  name.  Birds  of  long  wing,  like  the 
duck,  gull,  and  albatross,  cannot  rise  well  unless  they  run 
or  swim  quickly  on  the  level  till  they  get  the  necessary  speed 
to  enable  them  to  rise  on  the  air. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  because  one  of  the  chief  distinc- 
tions of  birds  is  flight,  there  are  some  birds  that  have  given 
up  the  habit  of  flying,  and  by  disuse  the  wings  have  be- 
come rudimentary  or  have  degenerated  into  organs  for  other 
purposes.  This  degeneration  is  greatest  in  the  cassowary, 
emu,  and  apteryx,  which  have  almost  no  wings  at  all.  The 
ostrich  has  rudimentary  wings  unfit  for  flight,  but  which  are 
still  flapped  while  running.  These  birds  depend  upon  their 
legs  for  escape.  The  penguins  are  marine  birds,  chiefly 
in  arctic  waters,  which  use  their  wings  as  flippers  in  swim- 


104  NATURE-STUDY 

ming.  The  wings  are  destitute  of  feathers  and  are  covered 
with  scales  like  the  feet.  The  wings  seem  to  be  the  main 
swimming  organs,  the  feet  being  used  more  like  rudders. 

Many  birds  add  a  touch  of  brightness  to  the  generally 
subdued  or  sombre  colors  of  nature.  Especially  those  of 
the  tropics  are  strikingly  and  beautifully  colored  with  bright 
hues.  The  oriole,  robin,  bluebird,  blue  jay,  rose-breasted 
grosbeak,  goldfinch,  tanager,  indigo  bird,  woodpecker,  red- 
winged  and  yellow-headed  blackbird,  cardinal,  summer 
yellowbird,  redstart,  meadow-lark,  some  of  our  wild  ducks, 
especially  the  teal  and  the  wood-duck,  are  the  most  com- 
mon of  our  birds  which  have  conspicuously  other  colors  than 
black,  white,  brown,  or  gray.  The  colors  of  the  great 
majority  of  birds  are  subdued  and  inconspicuous.  Probably 
no  other  animals  have  such  excellent  protective  colora- 
tion. Most  birds  are  colored  so  as  to  blend  with  the 
background.  Field  and  ground  birds  like  the  great  sparrow 
tribe,  snipes  and  sandpipers,  quail  and  grouse,  are  seen 
with  difficulty  when  standing  or  sitting  motionless  in  the 
grass,  leaves,  sand,  or  marsh.  Hunters  know  that  quail 
cannot  be  seen  though  sitting  within  a  yard's  distance,  and 
that  these  birds  rely  so  much  on  their  mimicry  of  the  ground 
and  leaves  that  they  will  not  fly  up  until  almost  stepped  on. 
A  ruffed  grouse  may  be  disturbed  with  her  young,  but  at  a 
sudden  warning  from  the  mother  the  little  birds  scatter,  and 
in  a  trice  are  effectually  concealed  by  crouching  among  the 
dry  leaves  and  sticks  on  the  ground.  Arboreal  birds,  such 
as  warblers,  vireos,  creepers,  and  thrushes  generally,  have 
brown,  gray,  or  olive  colors,  so  that  it  takes  a  sharp  eye  to 
see  them  among  the  leafy  trees  and  shrubbery.  The  whip- 
poor-will  not  only  mimics  the  bark  of  the  trees,  but  sits 


BIRDS  105 

lengthwise  on  the  branch  so  as  to  mimic  more  completely 
the  appearance  of  a  bend  or  a  knot  on  the  branch.  The 
bittern  is  of  a  tawny  color  streaked  lengthwise  with  black,  so 
as  to  look  like  the  light  and  shade  effect  among  the  slender 
marsh  grasses  in  which  it  lives,  and  when  surprised  it 
stands  still,  pointing  its  bill  upward  so  as  to  make  all  the 
lines  of  the  body  vertical  like  the  grass.  Even  the  contrast 
between  the  darker  backs  and  the  lighter  bellies  of  so  many 
birds  is  for  rendering  the  bird  more  inconspicuous.  The 
artist,  Mr.  A.  H.  Thayer,  has  shown  that  the  lighter  under- 
side makes  the  shadows  under  the  bird  less  dense,  and  thus 
makes  the  bird  stand  out  less  from  the  background. 

Some  birds,  as  the  ptarmigan,  the  snowy  owl,  and  the 
white  snowbird,  change  their  plumage  colors  summer  and 
winter.  They  become  almost  pure  white  in  the  latter  season, 
so  that  they  are  almost  indistinguishable  against  the  snow. 

But  brightness  of  color  is  dangerous  to  a  bird.  James 
Lane  Allen  shows  well  in  his  sympathetic  study  of  the  Red- 
bird  in  his  "  Kentucky  Cardinal "  what  the  dangers  are :  "  I  am 
most  uneasy  when  the  redbird  is  forced  by  hunger  to  leave 
the  covert  of  his  cedars,  since  he  on  the  naked  or  white  land- 
scapes of  winter  offers  the  most  far-shining  and  beautiful 
mark  for  Death.  .  .  .  For  it  is  then  that  his  beauty  is  most 
conspicuous,  and  that  Death,  lover  of  the  peerless,  strikes  at 
him  from  afar.  ...  Let  him  show  his  noble  head  and 
breast  .  .  .  and  a  ray  flashes  from  him  to  the  eye  of  a  cat; 
let  him,  as  spring  comes  on,  burst  out  in  desperation  and 
mount  to  the  tree-tops  which  he  loves,  and  his  gleaming  red 
coat  betrays  him  to  the  poised  hawk  or  to  a  distant  sharp- 
shooter; in  the  barn  near  by  an  owl  is  waiting  to  do  his 
night  marketing  at  various  tender  meat-stalls;  and,  above 


io6  NATURE-STUDY 

all,  the  eye  and  heart  of  man  are  his  diurnal  and  nocturnal 
foe." 

The  origin  and  development  of  bright  colors  is  believed 
by  some  authorities  to  have  something  to  do  with  the  mating 
of  the  birds.  Some  say  that  the  female  chooses  for  a  mate 
the  male  that  shows  the  handsomest  colors,  and  that  these 
colors  are  then  transmitted  to  the  next  generation.  At  any 
rate  these  fine  colors  are  put  on  only  during  the  mating 
season,  or  are  at  their  brightest  during  that  period,  and  hence 
we  may  call  them  the  matrimonial  clothes.  The  rooster,  the 
peacock,  turkey,  and  other  gaily-plumaged  birds  show  their 
finery  to  their  admiring  female  friends. 

In  the  mating  season  there  are  developed  in  some  birds 
curious  crests,  plumes,  waxtips  on  the  wing  feathers,  ex- 
crescences on  the  bill,  etc.,  all  of  which  may  be  considered 
as  frills  of  fashion. 

In  the  Spring  a  fuller  crimson  comes  upon  the  robin's  breast; 
In  the  Spring  the  wanton  lapwing  gets  himself  another  crest; 
In  the  Spring  a  livelier  iris  changes  on  the  burnished  dove; 
In  the  Spring  a  young  man's  fancy  lightly  turns  to  thoughts  of  love. 

— TENNYSON,  Locksky  Hall. 

The  mate  of  brightly  colored  males  is  less  bright  as  a  rule. 
The  female  robin,  oriole,  and  bluebird  are  considerably  more 
subdued  in  color  than  the  males.  The  female  rose-breasted 
grosbeak,  red-winged  blackbird,  and  scarlet  tanager  are  not 
at  all  like  the  handsome  males  in  color,  but  are  dressed  in 
rusty  brown  or  olive.  This  is  a  sacrifice  of  finery  to  safety. 
If  the  female  had  the  bright  colors  she  would  be  seen  more 
easily  on  the  nest,  and  after  the  young  were  hatched  would 
be  exposed  to  many  dangers  from  predatory  enemies.  This 


BIRDS  107 

would  also  mean  the  destruction  of  the  young.  The  bright 
colors  of  the  males  may  have  been  developed. as  suggested, 
or  the  brightest  females  may  have  always  been  most  frequently 
destroyed  and  the  less  conspicuous  ones  escaped,  and  thus 
the  subdued  colors  developed.  This  is  probably  not  the 
whole  explanation  of  the  difference  in  color  in  the  sexes. 

Birds  moult,  that  is,  lose  their  feathers  wholly  or  in  part 
every  year,  or  even  several  times  a  year.  This  loss  of  feathers 
has  some  connection  with  the  putting  on  of  mating  colors 
and  decorations,  and  sometimes  is  for  protection.  Change 
of  plumage  colors  is  chiefly  due  to  moulting  and  renewal. 
But  the  pigments  in  the  feathers  may  change,  and  sometimes 
the  tips  of  the  feathers  wear  away  and  the  lower  ends  of  the 
feathers  with  a  different  color  are  exposed.  This  last  is  the 
case  with  the  house  sparrow  when  the  male  puts  on  his  black 
bib  in  the  spring. 

The  young  are  generally  not  quite  of  the  same  color  as 
the  adults,  though  full  fledged.  The  colors  and  markings 
are  not  as  bright  or  as  distinct.  Sometimes  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  color  or  marking,  as  in  the  young  robin,  which 
has  its  breast  mottled  with  brown  spots,  like  a  thrush,  re- 
vealing the  connection  of  the  robins  with  the  thrushes. 

The  colors  in  feathers  are  chiefly  due  to  pigments.  But 
the  changing  iridescence  displayed  on  the  feathers  of  the 
dove,  blackbird,  humming-bird,  etc.,  is  due  to  the  interference 
of  light  rays  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  feathers- 
analogous  to  the  iridescence  on  the  mother-of-pearl. 

Besides  color,  there  are  other  mating  devices.  Many  male 
birds  go  through  curious  and,  to  us,  comical  performances 
before  their  lady-loves.  We  have  all  seen  the  strutting, 
rustling,  and  spreading  and  snapping  of  feathers  by  the 


io8  NATURE-STUDY 

turkey-cock.  The  ruffed  grouse  does  a  similar  thing,  and 
makes  a  drumming  noise  with  his  wings  by  flapping  them 
against  his  sides.  A  common  sight  is  the  clamorous  atten- 
tions bestowed  upon  a  female  sparrow  by  several  chirping, 
dancing  males  at  the  same  time,  all  spreading  their  wings 
like  little  turkey-cocks — each  apparently  saying,  "Take  me, 
take  me!"  Sometimes  the  males  engage  in  fierce  combat 
over  a  mate,  the  victor  winning  the  female  which  was  the 
cause  of  all  the  trouble. 

The  most  cheering  thing  about  birds,  is  their  song.  This 
is  a  general  statement,  for  many,  probably  the  majority  of 
birds,  do  not  sing,  though  they  may  make  sounds.  But 
certain  species  have  become  great  artists  in  song. 

The  canary,  European  lark,  nightingale,  and  the  mocking- 
bird have  the  reputation  of  the  greatest  artists.  They  have 
the  power  of  prolonged  singing,  and  at  the  same  time  their 
notes  are  exquisite  and  true.  The  catbird  will  sing  by  the 
hour,  and  the  brown  thrasher  and  the  robin  also  sing  at 
length;  but  their  song,  though  cheerful  and  entertaining,  is 
less  excellent.  Other  birds,  such  as  the  song  sparrow  and 
the  bobolink,  sing  short  bursts  of  sweet  melody.  Thrushes, 
bluebirds,  meadow-larks,  vireos,  and  warblers  have  short, 
sweet  songs.  With  other  birds  the  song  is  still  more  reduced, 
only  one  or  two  syllables  of  music,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tow- 
hee,  bob  white,  phcebe,  etc.  The  lower  birds,  swimmers  and 
waders,  do  not,  as  a  rule,  sing.  Yet  they  have  their  calls. 

Why  do  birds  sing  ?  Probably  the  earliest  function  of  the 
voice  was  to  call  the  mate,  or  the  young,  or  companions.  It 
is  still  so  used.  But  the  song,  no  doubt,  is  meant  at  times  to 
please,  to  serenade  and  cheer  the  mate.  Oftentimes  the 
song  is  simply  a  joyous  overflow  of  spirit  and  energy — the 


BIRDS  109 

bird  is  glad  it  is  living.  Birds,  in  singing,  usually  select  some 
elevated  place,  the  tip  of  a  reed,  or  the  top  of  a  tree,  to  suit 
their  elevated  spirit.  Some,  like  the  skylark,  fly  skyward 
higher  and  higher,  singing  the  while,  till  almost  out  of  view. 
Birds  also  sing  out  of  mere  rivalry,  or  as  a  challenge.  This 
is  well  illustrated  in  our  barnyard  cock,  which  answers  de- 
fiantly the  crow  of  another  perhaps  distant  cock.  Many 
birds  have  the  same  note  for  calling,  scolding,  distress,  fear, 
and  rejoicing.  Others  express  different  emotions  by  a  vari- 
ety of  sounds  or  songs. 

Birds  sing  most  in  the  mating  season,  in  the  spring,  but 
after  the  hungry  brood  appears  the  father  finds  little  time  or 
inclination  for  singing.  Some  birds  take  to  singing  again  in 
the  fall,  but  not  so  .much  as  in  the  spring. 

Birds  sing  chiefly  at  sunrise  and  during  the  early  hours  of 
the  morning,  and  are  quiet  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  The 
robin,  mocking-bird,  and  others  give  us  evening  songs.  The 
vesper  sparrow  is  called  thus  because  of  its  evening  serenade. 
Nightingales  and  mocking-birds  sing  even  after  sunset.  Noc- 
turnal birds,  of  course,  are  heard  at  night.  Then  are  heard 
the  hoot  of  the  owl,  the  squawk  of  the  nighthawk,  and  the 
plaintive  call  of  the  whippoorwill. 

It  is  difficult  to  express  in  human  sounds  the  songs  of  birds. 
Many  names  have  been  given  on  account  of  fancied  resem- 
blance of  the  calls  or  songs  of  the  birds  to  the  names  given, 
thus  chewink,  chicadee,  whippoorwill,  pewee,  bobwhite,  etc. 
Different  observers  interpret  the  more  complicated  songs  in 
different  ways  according  to  the  mood  awakened  by  the  song 
or  according  to  the  mood  when  the  song  was  heard,  hence 
no  two  interpretations  are  alike.  Mrs.  Bailey,  in  "Birds 
through  an  Opera-glass,"  says  the  robin  sings  "  Tril-la-ree, 


no 


NATURE-STUDY 


tril-la-rah,"  repeated.  She  says  that  little  German  children 
think  the  bobolink  says,  "Oncle-dey,  dunkle-dey,"  while  the 
farmer's  boy  believes  he  says,  "  Dig  a  hole,  dig  a  hole,  put 
it  in,  put  it  in,  cover't  up,  cover't  up,  stamp  on't,  step  along," 
and  therefore  calls  him  the  "  corn-planting  bird." 

Nests  and  Nestlings 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  kinds  of  nests  and  in  the 

skill  shown  by  different 
species  in  nest  construction. 
Some  birds  build  no  nest  at 
all.  There  are  many  sea 
fowl  which  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  bare  rock.  The  whip- 
poorwill  lays  hers  among  the 
dead  leaves  on  the  forest 
floor.  Her  cousin,  the  night- 
hawk,  lays  hers  on  the  flat 
roofs  of  city  buildings.  Many 
ground  birds,  such  as  quail, 
chicken,  and  "  partridge," 
make  hardly  any  pretence  at 
nest  building,  but  lay  the 
eggS  jn  a  shallow  depression 
hollowed  out  by  the  breast  among  the  leaves  or  in  the 
ground.  Many  ground-nesting  birds  lay  eggs  that  are 
colored  like  the  leaves  and  earth,  and  are  therefore 
more  likely  to  escape  notice.  The  ground  nest  is  usually 
more  or  less  concealed  by  a  clump  of  grass,  weeds,  a  bush, 
log,  or  base  of  a  tree.  Being  made  of  leaves  or  grass,  the 
nests  are  hard  to  distinguish  from  the  background.  The 


FIG.  17.    Robin's  Nest. 

(Showing  method  of  mounting.    Materials — grass, 
twigs,  mud.) 


BIRDS 


in 


nests  of  ground  sparrows  are  especially  well  hidden  among 
the  grass  or  weeds,  and  one  may  almost  step  on  such  before 
the  bird  will  fly  off  and  be  seen,  and  even  then  the  nest  may 
not  be  easily  found. 

Probably  for  greater  safety  from  weasels,  foxes,  snakes, 

and  other  foes  the  birds  first     , -^ _ 

took  to  building  in  trees  and 
bushes.  Most  such  nests  are 
perched  in  the  crotch  of  a  tree 
or  shrub,  although  some,  like 
the  humming-bird  and  some- 
times the  robin,  will  saddle 
the  nest  on  top  of  a  twig  or  a 
bough.  Some,  like  the  vireos 
and  orioles,  suspend  their  nests 
from  the  branches.  Among 
tree  dwellers  we  find  some 
hawks,  owls,  and  eagles,  the 
crow,  mourning  dove,  robin, 
kingbird,  bluejay,  blackbird, 
grosbeak,  cedarbird,  wood 
thrush,  catbird,  many  war- 
blers, and  some  sparrows.  FIG.  18.  oriole's  Nest. 
Some  birds  seem  to  prefer  (Hair  and  fibre  interwoven  into  a  hanging  basket-} 
special  kinds  of  trees.  The  robin  has  a  liking  for  box-elders 
and  maples,  and  the  oriole  a  fondness  for  the  drooping 
branches  of  the  elm. 

Most  song  birds  use  small  twigs,  grass,  fine  fibrous  roots, 
bark  fibre,  and  hair  for  the  material  of  the  nest.  Many 
plaster  this  material  together  with  mud  or  clay.  This  is 
seen  well  in  the  robin's,  the  phcebe's,  and  the  eaves-swallow's 


ii2  NATURE-STUDY 

nests.  The  coarsest  material  is  placed  on  the  foundation 
and  at  the  outside.  Many  birds  put  a  lining  of  horse-hair  or 
feathers  on  the  inside  of  the  nest.  The  eider  duck's  nest  is 
chiefly  of  feathers  plucked  from  the  breast  of  the  mother,  and, 
when  the  nest  is  left,  the  eggs  are  carefully  covered  with 
feathers. 

The  various  materials  are  carefully  woven  together,  the 
bird  using  its  bill  for  the  purpose.  Even  the  mud  is  carried 
in  the  bill.  The  general  form  of  the  nest  is  moulded  by  the 
bird's  pressing  the  material  into  shape  with  its  body.  Watch 
a  robin  building  a  nest,  and  you  will  see  the  bird  frequently 
squatting  down  and  turning  about  in  it  to  give  the  materials 
the  desired  shape. 

Birds  often  display  considerable  ingenuity  and  discretion 
in  the  choice  of  a  location  for  the  nest.  Some  seabirds,  on 
inaccessible  islands  and  cliffs,  do  not  need  much  of  a 
nest  for  the  protection  of  the  eggs  and  young;  but  where 
enemies  are  liable  to  intrude,  the  nest  must  be  made  incon- 
spicuous or  placed  in  a  safe  location.  The  red-winged  black- 
birds, marsh  wrens,  and  bobolinks  find  safety  by  building  in 
the  swamps  and  marshes.  The  first  makes  a  large,  loose  nest  of 
marsh  grasses,  woven  together  and  fastened  to  reeds  or  cattails. 

A  number  of  birds  live  in  hollows  in  trees  or  stumps,  as 
the  wren,  flycatchers,  nuthatches,  brown  creepers,  chicka- 
dees, and  bluebirds.  Woodpeckers  dig  out  their  own  hol- 
lows in  dead  trees  by  means  of  their  stout  chisel  beaks. 
Their  nest  is  lined  only  with  wood  chips.  Owls  are  often 
found  in  large  hollows  in  decayed  trees. 

The  crevices  and  ledges  of  cliffs  are  selected  by  many  birds, 
especially  on  the  seacoast  by  sea-fowl.  Phcebes  and  cliff 
swallows  also  lodge  in  such  places. 


BIRDS  113 

The  kingfisher  and  bank-swallow  dig  tunnels  into  the 
sides  of  clayey  or  sandy  bluffs,  at  the  ends  of  which  they 
make  their  nests. 

A  wonderful  nest  is  that  of  the  eaves-swallow,  which  is 
found  under  the  eaves  of  barns  and  houses.  This  is  a  flask 
or  cup  shaped  nest  made  of  pellets  of  clay  plastered  together 
and  lined  with  feathers. 

The  chimney-swift   makes   a  pretty  little  shelf  of  sticks 


FIG.  19.     Nest  of  Humming-Bird. 

< Built  of  lichens.     Simulating  a  wart  on  the  twig.) 

which  it  cements  together  with  a  sticky  saliva  and  attaches 
to  the  inside  of  unused  chimneys. 

One  of  the  daintiest  nests  is  that  of  the  humming-bird. 
This  is  a  tiny  thing  composed  of  moss  and  fibres  plastered 
over  with  lichens  and  lined  with  cotton.  The  nest  is  cemented 
on  top  of  a  branch,  and  so  cleverly  imitates  a  knot  that  it 
easily  remains  unnoticed. 

The  Baltimore  oriole's  nest  is  beautiful  in  workmanship, 
and  is  safely  and  airily  suspended  from  the  end  of  a  drooping 
elm  branch,  where  neither  snake,  squirrel,  nor  small  boy 


ii4  NATURE-STUDY 

dares  to  venture.  Occasionally  other  trees,  soft  maples  and 
tall  cottonwoods,  are  selected  for  the  nest.  It  is  composed 
of  a  network  of  bark  fibres,  grasses,  hair,  and  threads  skil- 
fully woven  together  into  a  little  sack  or  swinging  basket, 
and  is  hung  below  the  branch. 

The  little  house  wren  will  build  in  almost  any  sort  of 
cavity,  a  knot-hole  in  a  tree,  a  deserted  woodpecker's  nest, 

a  hollow  gourd 
suspended  on 
poles  or  walls, 
even  old  boots 
and  coat  pock- 
ets. The  house 
wren  is  very 
easily  attracted 
to  our  homes  by 
placing  a  bird- 
house  on  some 
shady  wall  or 
on  a  tree.  The 
hole  should  be 

FIG.  20.    Wren  Box,  Side  Removed.  rather     high     UD 

and  not  more  than  one  inch  in  diameter.  Here  is  a  picture  of 
the  inside  of  a  wren-box.  It  is  more  than  half  filled  with 
coarse  sticks  and  twigs,  some  six  or  eight  inches  long,  which 
the  bird  knew  enough  to  take  in  endwise..  Finally,  a  few 
feathers  and  some  cottonwood  down  were  added  for  lining. 

The  nesting  habits  of  the  house  sparrow  are  easily  ob- 
served. It  builds  in  sheltered  nooks  about  the  house,  over 
cornices,  mouldings,  in  drain-spouts,  and  in  holes  in  the 
walls  or  roof.  The  nest  itself  is  not  very  elegant,  being 


BIRDS  115 

hardly  more  than  a  loose  pile  of  straw,  sticks,  grass,  and 
feathers.  It  is  sometimes  quite  large,  often  causing  trouble 
with  drains,  and  looks  unsightly  on  the  house.  For  this 
reason  many  people  destroy  the  nests.  The  birds  frequently 
rebuild  several  times  before  becoming  discouraged. 

Some  grebes  make  a  floating  nest  of  rushes  and  sedges 
which  they  fasten  to  growing  stems  of  water  plants. 

The  cowbird  builds  no  nest  of  her  own,  but  lays  her  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  other  often  smaller  birds.  The  foster  parents 
hatch  and  rear  the  young  cowbird.  Most  writers  on  this 
subject  say  that  the  parent  cowbirds  pay  no  attention 
whatever  to  the  young.  But  Mr.  Mason,  in  "A  Hermit's 
Wild  Friends,"  asserts  that  he  has  frequently  seen  the  mother 
of  the  young  cowbird  visiting  the  nest  where  her  offspring  is 
quartered,  and  occasionally  has  seen  her  feed  it,  and  that, 
when  finally  out  of  the  nest,  she  assumed  full  care  of  the 
young  bird. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  nestlings,  precocial  and  altricial. 
The  former  are  down-covered  at  birth  and  are  able  to  run 
about  or  swim,  and  in  a  measure  take  care  of  themselves  and 
feed  alone.  Domestic  chicks,  young  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
goslings  belong  to  this  class,  and  also  quail,  grouse,  and  wild 
waterfowl.  But  most  birds  are  born  far  less  advanced. 
They  are  naked  or  almost  so,  weak  and  helpless,  and  remain 
for  a  time  in  the  nest,  and  are  taken  care  of  and  fed  by  the 
parents.  This  is  generally  for  a  period  of  several  weeks, 
till  they  are  able  to  fly.  For  this  reason  a  good,  well-con- 
cealed nest  is  an  advantage.  The  featherless  and  helpless 
state  of  this  class  of  young  birds  is  seen  well  in  the  case 
of  the  canary.  Young  robins,  blackbirds,  woodpeckers, 
thrushes,  sparrows,  etc.,  are  like  this.  It  is  interesting  to 


n6  NATURE-STUDY 

watch  the  development  of  the  nestlings.  At  first  ugly  and 
nearly  naked,  they  become  covered  with  down,  and  then 
later  the  real  feathers  appear,  first  on  the  shoulders,  wings, 
and  tail,  and  later  on  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  colors  of  the 
young,  even  when  fully  fledged,  are  not  quite  like  those  of 
the  old  birds,  are  less  distinct  in  marking  and  less  intense. 

Watch  the  old  birds  feed  the  young.  They  seem  almost 
always  hungry,  and  keep  their  parents  very  busy,  bring- 
ing worms,  insects,  fruit, 
grain,  etc.  Professor  Tread- 
well  records  that  a  young 
robin  requires  its  own 
weight  of  insects  daily. 
The  parents  have  been 
timed  to  carry  food  as 
often  as  once  a  minute  to 
FIG.  21.  Young  Grosbeaks.  the  young.  The  infant  diet, 

even  of  seed-eaters  like  the  sparrows,  is  at  first  almost  wholly 
insects-  and  worms.  After  leaving  the  nest  the  young  still 
receive  some  care  from  their  parents.  The  robins,  blue- 
jays,  grosbeaks,  and  sparrows  may  be  seen  in  the  yards  and 
on  the  lawns,  feeding  the  big  babies  that  have  left  the  nest 
and  can  fly  almost  as  well  as  the  old  ones. 

Migration 

Most  of  our  birds  migrate  to  milder  climates  as  the  cold 
weather  of  autumn  approaches.  The  increasing  coolness  of 
the  weather  and  the  decreasing  food  supply,  especially  in- 
sects, are  probably  the  chief  reasons  for  migration,  though 
there  are  probably  other  influences  that  impel  the  birds  to 
take  up  their  yearly  pilgrimages.  Migration  habits  are  in- 


BIRDS  117 

teresting  and  easily  observed.  Many  birds  gather  in  flocks, 
sometimes  of  very  great  size,  preliminary  to  migrating.  Black- 
birds congregate  and  fly  in  vast  armies  sometimes  miles  in 
length.  Bluebirds  and  robins  go  in  smaller  parties,  and  by 
shorter  stages,  resting  here  and  there  on  the  way.  Ducks 
and  geese  fly  in  marshalled  flocks,  and  probably  in  longer 
flights,  although  even  they  stop  on  the  way  in  our  northern 
lakes.  Many  birds  disappear  quietly  without  attracting  any 
notice,  except  that  they  all  seem  to  be  gone,  when  we  think 
of  them.  Some  fly  by  day,  as  the  above  mentioned,  others 
in  the  night,  as  is  known  by  their  disappearance  between 
days,  and  also  from  the  observations  of  lighthouse-keepers. 

Where  do  the  birds  go?  Many  do  not  go  further  than 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  The  bobolink,  which  is 
found  only  in  pairs  here  and  there  in  the  meadows  in  the 
North,  collects  in  great  armies  on  its  way  and  spends  the 
winters  in  the  southern  rice-fields  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf. 
The  robins  also  go  here  for  the  winter.  Some  of  our  birds 
go  to  Mexico,  and  even  to  South  America.  Some  fly  across 
to  the  West  Indies. 

It  seems  probable  that  birds  are  guided  in  their  travels 
by  more  than  the  sense  of  sight.  They  have  a  good  sense  of 
direction,  and  often  fly  across  the  sea  in  foggy  weather  with- 
out losing  their  way.  Different  species  choose  different 
routes  of  migration.  Sea  fowl  generally  travel  along  the 
coasts.  Some  of  the  land  birds  travel  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast  and  then  fly  across  from  Florida  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  from  there  to  the  shores  of  South  America.  Their  route 
seems  to  be  governed  by  the  food  supply.  For  most  of  the 
species  that  fly  via  the  West  Indies  do  not  use  the  Lesser 
Antilles  as  stepping-stones,  as  here  the  food  supply  would 


n8  NATURE-STUDY 

not  be  sufficient  for  so  many  birds.  Others  go  to  Mexico  and 
South  America  by  flying  over  the  mainland  and  the  Isthmus, 
while  still  others  fly  from  the  Gulf  States  across  the  Gulf, 
and  not  necessarily  at  its  narrowest  part  either.  This  shows 
that  some  birds  are  not  averse  to  long  flights  over  the  water. 
In  their  migrations  birds  are  subject  to  many  dangers. 
Along  the  coast  they  are  attracted  by  the  lighthouses  at  night, 
and  beat  themselves  to  death  against  the  shining  beacons. 
Storms,  rain,  sleet,  and  cold  often  destroy  thousands  of  them. 
Many  flocks  are  exhausted  and  drown  in  the  seas  they  at- 
tempt to  cross. 

Mr.  W.  W.  Cooke  writes  in  the  1903  "Yearbook  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture"  of  the  Eastern 
nighthawk  migrating  5,000  miles  from  Alaska  to  Patagonia, 
and  the  American  golden  plover  going  from  within  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  southern  part  of  Argentine,  a  distance  of  8,000 
miles.  He  also  gives  interesting  estimates  of  the  rate  of 
travel.  The  average  speed  in  the  northward  migration  in 
the  spring  from  the  Southern  States  to  Minnesota  is  about 
23  miles  per  day,  increasing  more  and  more  after  this,  to 
40  miles  through  Minnesota,  and  to  70  or  more  miles  farther 
north.  The  reason  for  this  increase  is  that  the  season  ad- 
vances more  rapidly  farther  north.  He  states  that  most 
birds  that  winter  south  of  the  United  States  outstrip  the 
spring  in  its  advance,  but  that  the  robin  advances  more 
slowly  than  spring. 

In  the  warm  South  the  birds  spend  the  winter  and  enjoy 
themselves.  But  on  the  return  of  spring  they  go  north  to 
breed.  Northern  latitudes  seem  better  for  the  breeding, 
and  many  birds  build  their  nests  far  north  in  Alaska,  the 
Mackenzie  Valley,  Labrador,  and  even  in  Greenland.  The 


BIRDS  119 

return  is  sometimes  made  in  great  flocks  that  distribute 
themselves  gradually  over  a  wide  territory.  Sometimes  the 
flocks  are  small.  Sometimes  the  flight  is  direct,  and  some- 
times by  short  and  easy  stages.  In  the  spring  we  frequently 
notice  the  appearance  of  flocks  of  robins  and  other  species, 
which  suddenly  disappear,  probably  having  passed  on  farther 
north.  In  a  number  of  species  the  males  come  first.  Indi- 
vidual, marked  birds  have  been  positively  known  to  return 
to  the  same  summer  home  year  after  year. 

In  mild  winters  some  of  the  birds  of  passage  do  not  go  south, 
but  remain  with  us.  Crows,  robins,  flickers,  song-sparrows, 
bluebirds,  etc.,  have  been  observed  in  the  North  in  winter. 

There  are  certain  birds  that  stay  with  us  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  all  the  year.  Owls  and  hawks, 
quail  and  grouse,  downy  woodpeckers,  nuthatches,  chicadees, 
bluejays,  English  sparrows,  snowbirds,  and  others  remain 
with  us  to  enliven  the  wintry  landscape.  They  find  a  living 
in  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses  that  project  above  the 
snow,  or  in  buds,  berries,  and  nuts  on  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  eggs,  larvae,  and  chrysalides  of  insects  found  on  the  bark 
of  trees  also  supply  a  large  part  of  the  winter  food.  The 
birds  of  prey  catch  smaller  birds  and  small  mammals. 

The  Food  of  Birds 

The  food  of  birds  depends  upon  the. species,  upon  the  mode 
of  life  of  the  bird,  and  upon  the  food  conditions.  Birds  are 
either  predominantly  vegetivorous  or  insectivorous,  some  eat- 
ing the  flesh  of  other  animals.  But  most  of  the  first  class  will 
also  eat  insects,  and  vice  versa. 

The  vegetable  diet  consists  of  seeds,  fruits,  nuts,  grains, 
corn,  buds,  leaves,  and  sap. 


120  NATURE-STUDY 

A  large  number  of  bird  species  feed  upon  the  seeds  of 
weeds,  such  as  ragweed,  pigweed,  the  buckwheat  family, 
hemp,  mullein,  and  wild  grasses.  The  great  group  of 
sparrows  especially  eat  the  seeds  of  weeds.  So  do  the  black- 
birds, cowbirds,  bobolinks,  quail,  grouse,  pigeon,  and  wild 
ducks. 

Cultivated  grains  are  eaten  by  crows,  jays,  blackbirds, 
pigeons,  prairie  chickens,  ruffed  grouse,  quail,  sparrows, 
meadow  larks,  bobolinks,  ducks,  and  geese.  Nuthatches, 
woodpeckers,  crows,  jays,  pigeons,  blackbirds,  grouse,  and 
quail  feed  upon  corn. 

Wild  rice  in  the  swamps  is  a  favorite  food  with  many  birds, 
especially  red-winged  blackbirds,  bobolinks,  rails,  and  wild 
ducks.  The  same  birds  commit  great  havoc  in  the  southern 
fields  of  cultivated  rice. 

The  dry  seeds  or  fruits  of  many  trees  are  relished.  The 
white  elm  nutlets,  the  fruits  of  birches  tend  maples,  and  the 
seeds  of  conifers  (especially  pine)  are  eaten  by  finches, 
sparrows,  woodpeckers,  chickadees,  and  nuthatches.  They 
constitute,  with  the  seeds  of  weeds,  the  chief  winter  diet  of 
many  birds. 

Nuts  are  eaten  by  crows  and  bluejays,  which  peck  them 
open.  But  the  pigeon,  grouse,  ducks,  and  quail  shell  them 
in  their  gizzards. 

The  dried  fruits  of  .the  sumach,  bayberry,  rose,  Virginia 
creeper,  grape,  and  barberry,  that  remain  on  the  winter 
shrubbery  and  vines,  afford  food  for  the  winter  residents — 
chicadees,  nuthatches,  sparrows,  snowbirds,  jays,  and  crows. 

There  are  many  birds  that  relish  juicy  fruits,  and  in  the 
ripening  time  they  sometimes  do  damage  to  fruit  and  berry 
plantations.  The  catbirds,  brown  thrashers,  robins,  sparrows, 


BIRDS  121 

quail,  grouse,  cedar  birds,  orioles,  blackbirds,  flickers,  blue- 
birds, crows,  and  others  like  fruit.  But  most  of  them 
seem  to  prefer  the  wild  fruit,  such  as  choke-cherries,  wild 
grapes,  raspberries,  blackberries,  partridge  berries,  bar- 
berries, blueberries,  huckleberries,  elderberries,  Virginia 
creeper,  mountain  ash,  and  cranberries. 

In  the  winter  and  early  spring  quail,  grouse,  sparrows,  and 


FIG.  22.    A  Weedy  Cornfield. 

(The  feeding  ground  of  many  birds  in  autumn  and  winter.) 

grosbeaks  eat  the  buds  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Grouse,  ducks, 
and  geese  also  eat  leaves  of  shrubs  and  herbs. 

The  yellow-bellied  woodpecker,  also  called  sapsucker,  is 
so  called  because  he  taps  maple  and  orchard  trees  for  the 
sap.  The  chicadees  and  kinglets,  also,  will  drink  the  sap  of 
wounded  trees. 

The  animal  diet  of  birds  consists  primarily  of  insects, 
also  of  spiders,  thousand  legs,  snails,  angleworms,  crayfish, 


122  NATURE-STUDY 

fish,  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  and  snakes,  while  the  larger  birds 
feed  upon  the  smaller  mammals  and  birds.  Practically 
all  birds,  even  the  little  nectar-loving  humming-bird,  will 
include  insects  on  their  bill  of  fare.  Some  birds,  like  the 
wrens,  swallows,  tanagers,  swifts,  nighthawks,  warblers,  and 
vireos,  are  almost  exclusively  insectivorous.  Thrushes,  cat- 
birds, robins,  bluebirds,  woodpeckers,  chicadees,  blue  jays, 
brown  thrashers,  cowbirds,  cedar  birds,  orioles,  brown 
creepers,  rose-breasted  grosbeaks,  kingbirds,  phcebes,  and 
many  shore  birds  feed  chiefly  upon  insects. 

The  Economic  Value  of  Birds 

One  thing  should  be  emphasized  in  bird  study,  and  that 
is  the  "dollar  and  cents"  value  of  birds.  Man  has  a  much 
greater  material  interest  in  the  birds  than  in  their  song  and 
beauty  and  lively  ways.  Our  forefathers  snared  and  shot 
with  bow  and  arrow  the  game  birds,  and  we  hunt  them  still. 
Canvasback  ducks,  prairie  chicken,  and  quail  on  toast  are 
delicacies  of  food. 

Long  ago  man  captured  the  jungle  fowl,  wild  goose,  and 
wild  duck,  and  more  recently  the  wild  turkey,  and  has 
domesticated  them  all.  From  them  we  have  derived  the 
great  variety  of  our  domestic  poultry.  Poultry  may  be  con- 
sidered as  domesticated  game.  The  chicken  industry  alone 
is  very  large  in  this  country.  The  estimated  production  of 
eggs  in  the  United  States  is  about  2,000  million  dozen,  which 
at  only  fifteen  cents  a  dozen  would  amount  to  $300,000,000. 
To  this  should  be  added  the  dressed  poultry  of  the  meat 
markets  and  the  down  of  geese  and  ducks. 

The  eggs  of  many  wild  birds,  particularly  seagulls,  are 
gathered  in  boat-loads  on  the  sea  cliffs  and  rocky  isl- 


BIRDS 


123 


ands  along  the  coasts,  and  used  for  food  and  other  pur- 
poses. 

Ducks  and  geese  furnish  us  with  soft  pillows  and  downy 
beds.  The  finest  down  comes  from  the  nests  of  the  eider 
duck  along  the  far  northern  sea  coasts.  This  duck  lines 


F  c.  .^3.    Feeding  the  Chickens. 

her  nest  and  covers  her  eggs  with  feathers  plucked  from 
her  breast. 

Man,  or  rather  woman,  has  borrowed  the  plumage  of  birds 
for  personal  adornment,  and  an  immense  trade  flourishes  in 
ostrich  plumes  and  the  feathers  of  many  other  birds. 

As  a  minor  economic  item,  may  be  mentioned  the  catching 
and  sale  of  song  and  pet  birds,  such  as  the  canary,  mocking- 
bird, and  parrot. 


i24  NATURE-STUDY 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  guano,  which  is  a  very 
valuable  fertilizer,  and  is  the  accumulated  manure  of  sea 
birds  found  on  many  islands  in  dry  climates,  especially  off 
the  Peruvian  coast. 

Another  economic  aspect  of  the  birds  is  seen  when  we 
consider  the  harm  that  certain  birds  do.  Many  species  en- 
tail a  loss  to  man  by  injuring  his  crops,  or  feeding  upon  his 
fruits,  or  by  robbing  him  of  domesticated  animals  or  of  game. 
Blackbirds  and  crows  are  great  grain  and  corn  thieves,  and 
when  they  gather  in  flocks  of  thousands  in  a  farmer's 
field,  they  do  great  damage  to  the  freshly  sown  grain,  or 
dig  up  the  planted  corn,  or  shell  out  the  heads  of  the 
standing  crop.  When  troublesome  this  way  they  are  de- 
servedly shot.  The  bobolinks,  so  famous  in  poetry  and  so 
harmless  and  cheering  in  the  North,  become  a  veritable  pest 
in  the  southern  rice  fields,  where  they  spend  the  winter  in 
vast  flocks.  Here  they  are  shot  and  eaten  by  the  negroes 
and  others.  The  cedarbird,  catbird,  thrush,  and  robin 
do  considerable  damage  to  small  fruit,  such  as  cherries  and 
berries.  The  Baltimore  oriole  has  a  bad  habit  of  pecking 
open  the  pods  of  green  peas.  Farmers  and  gardeners  try  to 
protect  themselves  by  shooting  the  thieves  or  by  setting  up 
scarecrows,  which,  however,  are  generally  useless.  Crows, 
hawks,  and  owls  steal  poultry,  and  occasionally  they  thus 
cause  great  annoyance. 

On  the  other  hand,  practically  all  birds  feed  upon  insects, 
and  many  destroy  other  harmful  creatures  or  such  as  are 
considered  a  nuisance.  In  this  way  man  derives  a  great 
indirect  benefit  from  the  birds.  This  is  not  realized  as 
thoroughly  as  it  should  be,  or  it  is  often  forgotten,  while 
at  the  same  time  only  the  sins  of  the  birds  are  remem- 


BIRDS 


I25 


bered  against  them.  Some  one  sees  a  sapsucker  bleeding  an 
apple  tree,  and  perhaps  injuring  a  limb.  Immediately  the 
orchardist  places  the  bird  upon  the  harmful  list  and  makes 
war  upon  it,  forgetting  the  good  this  bird  does  in  ridding 
his  fruit  trees  of  harmful 
borers,  beetles,  plant  lice, 
etc.  Teach  the  children 
to  suspend  judgment  on 
the  birds,  and  not  to  con- 
demn them  immediately 
as  unmitigated  pests.  If 
a  cedarbird  takes  a  little 
fruit,  it  does  still  more 
good  by  destroying  nox- 
ious insects.  Let  the  fruit 
taken  be  considered  part 
payment  for  the  good 
done.  The  economic  im- 
portance of  the  birds  can 
only  be  determined  by 
averaging  the  good  and 
the  harm  they  do.  This 
is  found  out  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  feeding 
habits  of  the  birds.  In- 
vestigators of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
others,  such  as  Beal,  Judd,  Forbes,  Fisher,  Weed,  Dearborn, 
etc.,  have  shot  many  thousands  of  birds  of  different  species 
in  different  seasons  and  have  examined  the  contents  of  their 
stomachs.  From  such  observations  we  are  able  to  say  more 
accurately  whether  a  bird  is  on  the  whole  useful  or  harmful. 


FIG.  24.    Apple  Tree  Showing  Good  Work  of 
Woodpeckers  Hunting  for  Borers. 


126  NATURE-STUDY 

Thus  we  can  say  that  the  goshawk,  the  sharp-shinned 
hawk,  and  Cooper's  hawk  do  more  harm  than  good,  but 
that  the  other  hawks  are  on  the  whole  beneficial  in  destroy- 
ing harmful  field  vermin ;  that  the  great  horned  owl  is  about 
as  useful  in  destroying  field  mice,  rats,  gophers,  moles,  frogs, 
etc.,  as  he  is  harmful  in  stealing  chickens  and  in  killing  quail, 
grouse,  and  song  birds;  and  that  the  bluejay  is  not  such 
a  thief  and  cannibal  as  he  is  generally  thought  to  be.  Most 
bird  students  agree  that  the  English  sparrow  has  proved  a 
curse  instead  of  blessing  to  this  country.  He  does  not  pay 
for  the  grain  he  eats,  nor  for  the  beneficial  birds  he  drives 
away,  nor  for  the  general  nuisance  he  makes  of  himself 
around  our  houses. 

We  know  that  the  woodpeckers  and  warblers  keep  our 
trees  free  from  borers,  caterpillars,  plant  lice,  etc. ;  and  that 
cuckoos  and  flycatchers,  meadow  larks,  orioles,  swallows, 
wrens,  robins,  and  bluebirds  are  almost  wholly  beneficial. 
They  feed  almost  entirely  upon  injurious  insects  and  worms. 
We  know  that  the  wild  sparrows,  such  as  the  song,  chipping, 
tree,  field,  and  other  sparrows,  and  the  slate-colored  junco 
are  very  useful  in  eating  great  quantities  of  weed  and  grass 
seeds.  Professor  Beal  estimates1  that  in  Iowa  alone  the 
single  species  of  the  tree  sparrow  destroys  at  least  875  tons 
of  weed  seed.  And  Mr.  Judd  estimates2  that  the  bob  whites 
in  the  State  of  Virginia  annually  destroy  573  tons  of  weed 
seeds.  This  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  usefulness  of  some  of 
our  birds. 

Birds  are  the  natural  check  upon  the  too  great  multiplica- 
tion of  insects.  The  thrush  family,  the  wren  family,  swal- 

1 "  Common  Birds  in  Relation  to  Agriculture,"  Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  54. 
2  Yearbook,  1903.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


BIRDS  127 

lows,  swifts,  warblers,  vireos,  flycatchers,  tanagers,  and  the 
shore  birds,  woodpeckers,  chicadees,  and  nighthawks  are 
almost  entirely  insectivorous,  and  highly  beneficial  to  the 
farmer,  the  fruit  grower,  and  the  truck  gardener.  They  also 
protect  our  flower  gardens,  our  lawns,  and  our  shade  trees. 

Even  seed-eaters,  like  the  blackbirds,  bobolinks,  jays, 
finches,  and  sparrows  are  largely  insectivorous;  as  are  also 
wading  birds,  grouse,  hawks,  and  owls.  The  food  of  nest- 
lings, even  of  seed  eaters,  is  at  first  composed  wholly  of  soft 
insects,  such  as  caterpillars,  cut-worms,  grubs,  larvae  of  ants, 
etc.,  flies,  plant  lice,  etc.  Gradually  harder  shelled  insects, 
like  beetles,  bugs,  and  locusts  are  added,  then  berries  and 
fruit,  and  then  hard  seeds.  Thus  even  seed-eating  sparrows, 
etc.,  are  valuable  as  insect  exterminators  during  the  breeding 
season. 

Birds  feed  especially  upon  any  insects  that  become  un- 
usually numerous.  Thus  in  plagues  of  cankerworms,  army- 
worms,  or  locusts,  the  birds  find  this  class  of  food  especially 
abundant,  and  therefore  subsist  on  it  more  than  ordinarily. 
In  locust  years  these  insects  are  eaten  a  great  deal  even  by 
birds  not  particularly  insectivorous,  such  as  owls,  hawks, 
sparrows,  and  grouse.  Thus,  when  a  plague  of  insects  occurs, 
the  birds'  activity  in  destroying  them  correspondingly  in- 
creases, and  acts  as  a  very  great  check  on  their  multipli- 
cation. 

Mr.  Forbes  made  an  investigation  during  a  cankerworm 
plague  that  was  ruining  the  shade  trees,  to  see  how  well  the 
birds  were  doing  their  work  in  destroying  this  pest.  He  ex- 
amined the  stomachs  of  149  birds  of  36  different  species, 
and  found  that  85  birds  representing  26  species  had  eaten 
the  worms.  That  is,  72  per  cent,  of  the  species,  and  60  per 


128 


NATURE-STUDY 


cent,  of  the  birds  had  eaten  the  caterpillars.  Taking  the 
149  birds,  35  per  cent,  of  their  food  was  cankerworms,  a  very 
good  showing. 

There  is  a  most  unfortunate  prejudice  against  hawks  and 
owls.  An  examination  of  their  stomachs  has  shown  that 
most  of  them  are  positively  beneficial  to  the  farmer  and  the 

fruit  raiser  in  destroying 
gophers,  rats,  mice,  wea- 
sels, moles,  insects,  etc. 
And  yet  the  average  man 
or  boy  feels  that  he  is 
virtuously  doing  his  duty 
in  shooting  them. 

In  the  winter  of  1904 
field  mice  wrought  great 
destruction  in  the  or- 
chards of  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin.  The  mice 
gnawed  the  bark  at  the 
base  of  the  young  trees 
and  killed  them.  Similar 
plagues  of  mice,  gophers, 
and  other  small  rodents 


in  this  country  and  elsewhere.  The  only  natural  check  seems 
to  be  larger  mammals  and  hawks  and  owls.  It  is  known 
that  these  birds  are  attracted  to  those  regions  where  such 
pests  abound,  and  destroy  great  numbers  of  them. 

In  1886,  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  offered  a  bounty  on 
hawks,  owls,  minks,  and  weasels,  and  in  a  year  and  a  half  paid 
$90,000  in  bounties.  One  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand, 


BIRDS  129 

five  hundred  and  seventy-one  animals,  mostly  hawks  and  owls, 
were  killed  under  this  law.  The  probable  loss  in  poultry 
from  these  animals,  estimates1  Dr.  C.  H.  Merriam,  amounted 
to  about  5,000  fowls  per  year,  which,  if  valued  at  25  cents 
apiece,  would  amount  to  $1,875  in  one  and  a  half  years.  This 
price  is  fair,  as  most  of  the  poultry  was  young.  So  the  state 
was  taxed  $90,000  to  save  $1,875,  which  the  farmers  and  legis- 
lators soon  saw  was  bad  economy.  But  the  loss  to  the  state 
was  really  greater,  says  Dr.  Merriam,  if  we  think  of  the  useful 
owls  and  hawks  that  were  killed,  and  of  the  loss  of  many 
thousand  dollars'  worth  of  grain  caused  by  field  mice,  gophers, 
etc.,  which  were  allowed  to  live.  Figuring  on  the  grain  eaten 
by  the  mice,  and  on  the  capacity  of  three  or  four  mice  per 
owl  each  day,  he  estimates  a  loss  in  grain  of  $3,500,000  in 
the  one  and  a  half  years  that  the  law  was  in  force.  This  is 
an  excellent  object-lesson.  Common  hawks  and  owls,  ex- 
cepting the  sharp-shinned  and  Cooper's  hawk,  and  the  great 
horned  owl,  are  much  more  beneficial  than  harmful,  and 
should  not  be  killed. 

The  English  sparrow  has  acquired  a  rather  bad  reputation 
in  this  land,  though  when  first  introduced  it  was  hoped  that 
it  would  be  useful  in  destroying  insects.  About  1850,  various 
eastern  cities  were  afflicted  with  a  scourge  of  cankerworms 
that  destroyed  the  foliage  of  the  shade  trees  in  the  streets 
and  parks,  and  thereby  injured  the  trees.  It  was  thought 
that  the  English  or  house  sparrow,  being  accustomed  to  city 
life,  would  rid  our  cities  of  these  plagues.  So,  in  1850,  several 
pairs  of  sparrows  were  imported  and  set  free  in  Brooklyn, 
and  a  few  years  later  a  large  lot  were  brought  to  the  same 
city  and  other  places,  and  the  bird  became  established.  Not 

1  Report,  i8863  Ornithologist  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


i3o  NATURE-STUDY 

only  did  it  become  established,  but,  finding  conditions  so  agree- 
able, as  do  many  other  immigrants,  it  thrived  and  soon  spread 
throughout  the  East  and  Middle  West,  and  is  on  its  onward 
march  across  the  continent.  Not  only  is  it  to  be  seen  in  al- 
most every  village  and  city,  but  it  has  even  invaded  the  rural 
regions.  Now,  if  the  expectations  of  those  who  introduced 
the  bird  had  been  realized,  it  would  be  well.  But,  unfortu- 
nately, the  sparrow  is  not  as  insectivorous  as  was  hoped,  and 
has  the  habit  of  eating  grain.  He  is  a  pugnacious  little  bird, 
and  will  drive  away  other  and  more  desirable  birds,  like  the 
robins,  bluebirds,  swallows,  wrens,  etc.  He  pre-empts  the 
bird  houses  we  put  up  for  these  birds,  and  has  been 
known  to  destroy  their  nests,  eggs,  and  young.  He  is  a 
nuisance  generally  in  that  he  clogs  up  rain-spouts  on  the 
houses,  or  builds  his  rather  unsightly  nests  in  all  kinds  of 
nooks  and  on  all  kinds  of  protected  cornices  and  mouldings, 
and  soils  the  houses  with  his  roosting  places.  Moreover, 
the  shrill,  monotonous  chirping  of  the  sparrow  becomes  very 
tiresome.  All  these  things  have  caused  a  revulsion  of  feeling 
against  the  sparrow,  and  now  there  are  frequent  and  serious 
proposals  and  even  attempts  to  destroy  him  by  wholesale,  by 
snaring  and  poisoning  and  the  destruction  of  eggs.  But 
these  attempts  are  hopeless  now  that  the  bird  has  spread. 
The  English  sparrow  has  come  to  stay,  and  we  must  pay 
the  penalty  for  bringing  him  here  by  enduring  his  an- 
noyances. 

There  is,  however,  this  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  house 
sparrow.  He  frequents  the  busy  streets  that  would  be 
avoided  by  other  birds,  and  he  enlivens  them  by  his  presence. 
Then,  too,  he  does  eat  insects  to  a  certain  extent,  and  these 
are  chiefly  the  diet  of  th£  nestlings.  Sparrows  also  eat  a  large 


BIRDS  i3I 

quantity  of  weed  and  grass  seed.  I  have  often  seen  them 
collecting  caterpillars  from  infested  trees,  and  have  seen 
flocks  of  them  on  the  lawns,  eating  the  seeds  of  crab-grass  and 
other  weeds. 


CHAPTER  X 
PROTECTION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  BIRDS 

THERE  are  many  natural  checks  to  the  over-multiplication 
of  birds.  They  have  their  natural  enemies,  such  as  birds  of 
prey,  weasels,  minks,  foxes,  cats,  and  snakes.  There  are 
parasitic  and  other  diseases  that  destroy  many.  The  ele- 
ments are  especially  destructive  of  bird  life.  On  their  migra- 
tions birds  are  driven  out  of  their  course  by  adverse  winds, 
and  falling  from  exhaustion  are  killed  on  the  ground.  They 
are  also  beaten  against  trees  and  buildings,  or  fall  into  the 
sea,  if  they  happen  to  be  attempting  the  passage  over  the 
water,  and  are  drowned.  Occasionally  severe  cold  waves 
penetrate  far  south  in  winter,  and  then  many  of  the  birds 
perish. 

Annie  Trumbull  Slosson  describes  in  Bird-Lore,  April, 
1899,  the  freezing  to  death  of  many  birds  at  Miami,  Florida, 
in  February,  1899.  "  The  next  morning  the  sun  shone  brightly, 
though  the  weather  was  still  very  cold — the  mercury  had  fal- 
len below  30  degrees  during  the  night.  But  as  I  raised  the 
shades  of  my  eastern  windows  I  saw  half  a  dozen  swallows 
sitting  on  the  window-ledge  in  the  sunshine,  while  the  air 
seemed  again  filled  with  flashing  wings.  .  .  .  But  alas!  it 
was  but  a  remnant  that  escaped.  Hundreds  were  found 
dead.  Men  were  sent  out  with  baskets  to  gather  the  limp 
little  bodies  from  the  piazzas,  ledges,  and  copings.  It  was 


PROTECTION   AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     133 

a  pitiful  sight  for  St.  Valentine's  Day,  when,  as  the  old  song 
has  it,  'The  birds  were  all  choosing  their  mates.'" 

In  the  spring  of  1904  when  the  Lapland  longspurs  were 
passing  through  the  State  of  Minnesota  on  the  way  to  their 
northern  summer  home,  they  migrated  in  vast  flocks.  They 
encountered  cold  weather,  winds,  and  even  snow  and  sleet, 
and,  exhausted,  they  came  to  the  ground,  where  they  were 
either  killed  by  the  fall  or  died  from  exposure.  The  ground 
for  miles  around  was  strewn  with  the  dead  bodies  of  the 
birds,  which  lay  thickly  in  the  streets  and  on  the  sidewalks 
and  porches  of  the  towns  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
state.  It  will  take  many  years  of  breeding  to  make  up  the 
loss  experienced  by  this  species. 

Sometimes  the  birds  are  lured  northward  by  mild  weather 
in  early  spring,  and  are  then  very  numerously  destroyed  by 
subsequent  cold  and  snow.  I  recall  one  such  spring  in  the 
rolling  prairie  region  of  Minnesota.  Many  ground  sparrows 
had  made  nests  and  even  hatched,  when  a  snowstorm  de- 
stroyed not  only  the  young  but  many  of  the  old  birds.  The 
bluebirds  also  fared  very  badly  that  year. 

These  vicissitudes  of  the  birds  are  mentioned  to  indicate 
various  agencies  that  tend  to  reduce  their  numbers.  But 
one  of  the  most  serious  of  all  the  enemies  of  birds  is  man. 
Game  birds  are  shot  by  the  hunter.  The  farmer  kills  the 
birds  because  he  believes  that  they  eat  his  crops  or  steal  his 
chickens.  Rarity  attracts  the  bird  collector.  Professional 
collectors  seek  the  skins  and  plumage  for  the  millinery  trade. 
Even  the  song  is  a  source  of  danger.  Nightingales,  finches, 
thrushes,  etc.,  are  snared  by  thousands,  to  be  sold  as  cage 
birds.  Eggs  are  collected  for  the  markets,  from  the  cliffs  and 
islands  on  the  coast.  Would-be  ornithologists  collect  eggs  and 


I34  NATURE-STUDY 

shoot  birds  to  make  a  "collection."     Small  boys  and  grown 
men  destroy  thousands  of  birds  for  "fun"  with  sling  or  gun. 


FlG.  26.    Hunting  Grouse. 


The  game  birds  suffer  most.     The  wild  turkey  and  the 
pinnated  grouse  are  almost  exterminated.     In  the  days  of 


PROTECTION   AND   PRESERVATION  OF  BIRDS     135 

Audubon  wild  pigeons  were  so  numerous  that  they  formed 
flocks  that  were  miles  in  length  and  actually  darkened  the 
sun.  Nowadays  they  are  rare. 

The  unrestricted  shooting  of  game  has  driven  many  kinds 
to  less  settled  regions  or  almost  destroyed  them.  Such 
shooting  is  especially  destructive  in  the  breeding  season,  and 
an  element  of  unnecessary  cruelty  and  wantonness  is  added 
when  the  young  birds  are  left  to  starve  because  the  parents 
are  killed. 

On  the  seacoast  much  harm  is  done  the  birds  by  the  col- 
lection of  eggs,  often  by  boat-loads,  from  the  rocky  islets  and 
cliffs.  These  eggs  are  eaten,  or  are  used  in  tanning  and 
other  industries,  but  the  birds  that  are  robbed  are  discouraged 
and  driven  from  their  accustomed  breeding  places,  and,  of 
course,  the  multiplication  of  the  species  is  curtailed. 

Even  our  harmless  or  useful  song  birds  are  killed.  Through 
ignorance  or  prejudice,  farmers  and  others  destroy  them  be- 
cause they  take  a  little  grain  or  fruit.  Hawks  and  owls, 
which  are  as  a  class  very  beneficial,  are  generally  killed  as 
chicken  thieves.  The  small  boys  with  air-guns,  sling-shot,  or 
other  weapon  do  a  great  deal  of  harm  in  the  name  of  pleasure 
or  sport.  Such  "sport"  is  very  reprehensible,  and  should 
be  severely  checked  by  parents,  teachers,  and  civic  authori- 
ties. In  many  cities  laws  are  passed  prohibiting  the  killing 
of  song  birds.  Animals  in  parks  are  generally  thoroughly 
protected  for  the  benefit  and  pleasure  of  those  who  go  there, 
and  this  principle  should  be  extended  to  the  wild  birds 
everywhere. 

Our  schools,  by  sensible  and  sympathetic  study  of  the 
birds,  can  do  much  to  counteract  their  destruction.  More 
correct  ideas  can  be  taught  about  their  harmfulness  and  use- 


136  NATURE-STUDY 

fulness,  their  natural  checks  and  enemies,  their  habits  and 
food,  and  the  need  of  close  seasons  in  hunting.  A  knowl- 
edge of  bird  life,  and  a  sympathetic  interest  in  birds, 
should  do  much  for  the  cause  of  their  protection.  I  be- 
lieve it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  the  principal  features  of 
the  game  laws  of  each  state  were  read  to  the  boys  in  the 
schools  once  a  year,  and  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  the 
laws  made  clear. 

It  is  a  question  how  much  shooting  of  birds  may  be  justified 
in  the  name  of  science.  The  average  boy  certainly  should 
not  be  encouraged  in  making  a  collection  of  stuffed  birds. 
There  may  be  some  boy  with  a  marked  interest  in  ornithology 
who  may  be  permitted  to  shoot  birds  for  such  a  purpose, 
but  he  should  be  advised  not  to  destroy  any  more  life  than 
necessary. 

Many  boys  have  the  egg-collecting  fever  for  a  short 
while,  during  which  they  may  commit  much  harm.  If  the 
collecting  is  done  with  a  serious  purpose,  to  learn  more  of  the 
birds,  it  may  be  encouraged,  but  with  proper  restraints.  The 
collector  should  not  take  the  whole  clutch  of  eggs  from  a 
nest,  but  only  one  or  two.  When  eggs  are  collected,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  ordinary  stamp  collections,  merely  for  the 
collecting,  and  when  the  collectors  make  a  practice  of  selling 
their  eggs,  the  practice  should  be  checked. 

We  have  our  societies  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  ani- 
mals. These  societies  are  largely  composed  of  women. 
Yet  many  of  these  same  women,  who  would  have  a  man 
arrested  for  beating  his  horse  inhumanly,  or  for  leaving  it 
unblanketed  in  the  cold,  will  contentedly  and  with  pleasure 
wear  hats  adorned  with  the  plumage  of  birds,  plumage  that 
was  obtained  by  the  death  of  the  bird  to  which  it  belonged. 


PROTECTION  AND  PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     137 

Of  course  this  is  generally  due  to  thoughtlessness.  These 
women  would  shrink  with  horror  at  the  thought  of  doing 
the  killing  themselves,  or  even  if  they  realized  fully  that  others 
had  to  do  it  for  them. 

From  the  tropics  to  the  polar  regions  birds  are  shot  for 
plumage  for  the  millinery  trade.  As  the  feathers  for  hats 
sometimes  bring  $15  per  ounce,  it  is  a  great  temptation  for 
men  to  go  and  hunt  the  birds.  Beautiful  paroquets,  orioles, 
tanagers,  terns,  egrets,  and  other  kinds  of  harmless  or  useful 
birds  are  killed  in  great  numbers.  If  ladies  must  adorn 
themselves  with  borrowed  plumage,  let  them  use  the  feathers 
of  game  birds,  which  are  shot  for  food  anyway,  and  of  the 
domesticated  birds,  among  which  we  may  now  include  the 
ostrich. 

The  story  of  the  American  egret  and  the  snowy  egret, 
which  furnish  the  beautiful  aigrettes  for  hats,  is  especially 
pathetic.  Aigrettes  are  the  plumes  that  develop  on  the 
head,  wings,  and  back  of  the  egrets,  and  are  finest  in  the 
breeding  season.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States, 
where  they  live,  they  form  large  colonies  where,  in  the  breed- 
ing period,  it  is  an  easy  matter  for  hunters  to  kill  them 
by  hundreds.  The  saddest  feature  of  this  slaughter  is  that, 
when  their  parents  are  shot,  the  young  are  left  to  starve 
miserably.  Women  should  be  ashamed  to  be  in  any  man- 
ner connected  with  this  cruel  business.  As  long  as  they  will 
buy  and  wear  aigrettes,  however,  there  will  be  a  demand  for 
the  plumes,  and  hunters  will  be  paid  to  furnish  them. 

The  millinery  trade  demands  enormous  numbers  of 
feathers  whenever  they  are  the  fashion.  Some  plumage 
is  imported  from  other  countries,  particularly  the  tropical 
regions,  where  the  birds  are  most  gorgeously  colored. 


138  NATURE-STUDY 

A  dealer  in  bird  skins  in  three  months  killed  11,000  birds 
in  South  Carolina.  He  sold  30,000  a  year  mainly  to  the 
millinery  trade.  A  New  York  milliner,  who  wanted  40,000 
skins,  hired  men  to  shoot  gulls,  terns,  etc.,  on  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  Virginia,  and  paid  10  cents  apiece  for  them. 
During  four  months  a  Long  Island  village  furnished  70,000 
terns  and  land  birds  for  the  trade. 

Happily,  a  change  seems  to  be  taking  place  in  regard  to  the 
wearing  of  feathers,  though  how  long  the  present  decrease  in 
their  use  will  last  is  impossible  to  state.  It  may  be  that  when 
feathers  are  next  in  vogue  in  millinery,  the  birds  will  again 
suffer.  But  at  present  most  ladies,  in  this  country  at  least, 
have  had  the  cruelty  of  the  practice  of  wearing  plumage 
shown  to  them,  and  prefer  not  to  wear  it.  The  crusade  of 
the  last  twenty  years  against  the  wearing  of  feathers  seems 
to  have  had  good  results.  In  our  schools  the  cause  of  pro- 
tection for  the  birds  has  been  helped.  Various  ornithological 
societies,  the  Audubon  Societies,  and  the  League  of  American 
Sportsmen  have  united  in  showing  the  enormity  of  the  de- 
struction of  birds  that  has  been  going  on,  and  in  urging  the 
abandonment  of  the  fashion  of  wearing  feathers.  The 
periodical  and  daily  press  also  have  lent  their  aid  in  this  good 
work. 

As  a  result  of  all  this  agitation  the  separate  states  and 
the  National  Government  have  passed  laws  regulating  or 
prohibiting  the  destruction  of  birds,  the  shipment,  and 
even  possession  of  plumage  of  birds  other  than  game. 
The  Lacey  Act,  passed  by  Congress  in  1900,  prohibits  the 
importation  of  all  foreign  birds  except  such  as  are  per- 
mitted by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  This  prevents  the 
importation  of  birds  from  the  tropics  or  other  countries, 


PROTECTION   AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     139 

and  aids   the  states  in  stopping  the  traffic  in  birds  across 
their  borders. 

While  the  laws  are  not  all  that  is  to  be  desired,  they  still 
go  a  good  way  toward  the  protection  of  harmless  and  bene- 
ficial birds.  Of  course  there  are  time  limits  set  for  the 
hunting  of  game  birds,  and  the  export  of  game  is  prohibited. 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  some  other  states  have 
millinery  clauses  in  their  game  laws,  and  make  the  sale  or 
possession,  and  even  the  wearing  of  the  feathers  of  protected 
birds  a  misdemeanor.  No  doubt  through  the  enforcement 
of  these  restrictive  laws  the  millinery  traffic  in  plumage 
will  dimmish  greatly. 

Audubon  Societies 

In  1886  there  was  started  by  Dr.  George  Bird  Grinnell, 
editor  of  Forest  and  Stream,  an  organization  for  the  protection 
of  birds  other  than  game  in  the  State  of  New  York,  which 
soon  had  branches  in  almost  every  state  in  the  Union.  This 
organization  was  called  the  Audubon  Society,  in  honor  of 
that  great  naturalist  and  lover  of  the  birds,  John  James 
Audubon,  who  studied  American  birds  in  the  first  half  of  the 
last  century.  The  chief  work  of  this  society  was  to  combat 
the  large  trade  in  feathers  for  millinery  purposes,  and  when 
this  trade  declined,  partly  through  the  efforts  of  the  society 
and  partly  because  of  a  change  in  the  fashion  in  hat  decora- 
tion, the  society  died  out.  In  1896,  however,  on  a  revival 
of  the  feather  trade,  new  Audubon  societies  were  formed  in 
different  states,  notably  in  Massachusetts.  All  the  state 
societies  are  bound  together  by  a  national  committee. 

The  aims  of  the  present  Audubon  societies  are,  first,  to 
awaken  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  birds  by  means  of 


140  NATURE-STUDY 

society  meetings,  libraries  of  bird  literature,  lectures,  school- 
work,  bird  calendars,  bird  charts,  the  observance  of  Bird 
Day  in  the  schools,  outings  for  bird  study,  pins,  badges,  etc. ; 
and,  secondly,  the  establishment  of  protective  legislation  for 
other  than  game  birds,  and  its  enforcement.  The  protec- 
tion of  game  is  left  to  the  various  national  and  other  sports- 
men's leagues. 

The  magazine  Bird-Lore  ($1.00  per  year)  is  the  official 
organ  of  the  Audubon  societies,  and  it  is  also  interesting  and 
valuable  for  its  descriptions  of  birds  and  bird  life. 

The  trade  in  feathers  has  been  greatly  checked,  as  far 
as  our  native  birds  are  concerned,  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Audubon  societies.  Restrictive  laws  have  also  been  passed 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  foreign  birds,  and  wardens 
have  been  engaged  to  protect  the  gulls,  terns,  and  other  sea 
birds  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  depredations  of  hunters. 

There  will  always  be  need  for  such  organizations.  In 
certain  communities  or  regions  there  develops  from  time  to 
time  a  lack  of  interest  in  the  birds,  or  a  prejudice  arises 
against  certain  species,  or  the  boys  have  the  egg-collecting 
fad,  or  worse,  wantonly  shoot  the  birds  with  gun  or  sling- 
shot. At  such  times  the  organization  of  the  children  and 
interested  adults  into  Audubon  or  similiar  societies  would  be 
an  excellent  thing.  As  soon  as  a  healthy  sentiment  is 
awakened  against  it,  the  evil  will  be  checked.  Even  though 
the  organization  is  disbanded  later,  it  can  easily  be  reor- 
ganized as  soon  as  another  need  for  it  arises. 

Bird  Day  in  the  Schools 

Many  schools  set  aside  a  day  in  spring  as  Bird  Day.  Its 
purpose  is  similar  to  that  of  Arbor  Day,  to  disseminate 


PROTECTION   AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     141 

knowledge  about  the  birds,  and  to  arouse  a  more  general  in- 
terest in  their  protection.  The  idea  originated  with  Professor 
C.  A.  Babcock,  of  Oil  City,  Pa.  In  May,  1894,  a  day  was 
observed  there  as  Bird  Day,  and  the  schools  of  other  cities 
soon  followed  this  example.  Now  the  day  is  a  regular  feature 
of  the  school  calendar  of  several  states,  and  in  some  of  them 
its  observance  is  even  recognized  by  law. 

Education  is  very  properly  recognized  as  one  of  the  most 


FIG.  26.     Young  Grosbeaks. 

important  factors  in  bird  protection.  Courts  of  law  and 
officers  are  not  as  effective  for  this  purpose  as  a  strong 
sentiment  in  school  children  in  favor  of  the  birds.  For  the 
small  boy  is  most  destructive  of  the  local  song  birds.  By 
education  proper  sentiments  can  be  instilled  into  the  boys  that 
will  remain  with  them  as  men,  and,  not  least  in  importance, 
the  girls  can  be  taught  to  see  the  cruelty  of  wearing  birds' 
plumage  and  to  abhor  the  fashion  for  that  reason  when  they 
grow  up. 

Bird  Day  should  be  the  culmination  rather  than  the  be- 
ginning of  bird  study.     After  the  birds  have  been  studied 


i42  NATURE-STUDY 

intelligently  and  sympathetically  during  the  early  spring, 
let  Bird  Day  be  observed.  It  will  then  be  appreciated 
better  and  be  more  effective. 

The  following  are  suggestions  for  Bird  Day  programmes, 
which  can  be  modified  according  to  the  age  of  the  children. 

Original  essays,  giving  descriptions  of  certain  local  birds, 
bird  habits,  bird  haunts,  bird  food,  etc.  Discussions  on  the 
benefit  and  harm  from  birds.  Reading  of  the  game  laws, 
and  their  explanation.  Reading  of  the  laws  protecting  song 
birds.  Reading  of  Senator  Hoar's  petition  of  the  birds  to 
the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts.  Impersonations  by  the 
children  of  certain  birds,  the  description  of  their  habits, 
and  the  guessing  of  their  names.  Reading  of  literature 
published  by  the  Audubon  and  other  protective  societies 
descriptive  of  the  destruction  of  the  birds  and  the  use  of 
plumage  in  the  millinery  trade.  A  discussion  of  the  natural 
enemies  and  dangers  of  birds.  The  account  of  personal  ex- 
periences with  the  birds  by  the  children  and  others.  Recita- 
tions of  poems  and  readings  of  prose  selections  about  the 
birds.  An  excellent  feature  would  be  an  illustrated  lantern- 
slide  lecture  by  some  one  who  has  made  a  study  of  the 
birds.  The  room  could  be  decorated  with  nests  (old  ones), 
colored  pictures  of  the  native  birds,  children's  drawings  of 
canaries,  and  parrots,  etc.,  in  cages.  The  reading  of  Long- 
fellow's "Birds  of  Killingworth "  is  especially  appropriate 
or  the  day. 

In  places  where  the  birds  are  much  persecuted  it  would 
be  well  to  make  special  effort  on  Bird  Day  to  interest  old 
and  young  in  its  observance.  School  patrons,  and  other 
citizens,  civic  authorities,  etc.,  should  be  invited  to  attend, 
and  beneficial  legislation  might  result  in  the  end. 


PROTECTION  AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     143 

Attracting  the  Birds 

It  is  possible  to  attract  birds  near  our  homes  if  we  can 
surround  them  with  the  conditions  they  demand.  The  best 
way  is  to  plant  trees  and  shrubbery  about  the  house.  There 
should  be  clumps  of  trees  and  shrubs  so  as  to  afford  shelter 
and  concealment  and  places  for  their  nests.  Evergreens 
are  much  used  by  the  birds  as  shelter  against  wind, 
snow,  and  rain,  and  are  a  favorite  choice  for  building- 
sites.  Fruit  trees  and  berry  bushes  are  sure  to  attract  birds, 
not  only  for  the  fruit,  but  for  the  caterpillars  and  other  in- 
sects that  live  on  these  plants.  Wild  berries  and  fruit  seem 
to  be  preferred  to  cultivated  ones.  Choke-cherry,  mountain 
ash,  raspberry,  barberry,  currant,  etc.,  and  grape  and  wood- 
bine afford  food,  some  of  them  even  to  winter  birds.  Clumps 
of  hemp,  ragweed,  sunflower,  etc.,  attract  the  seed-eaters. 
Nuthatches,  woodpeckers,  chicadees,  and  other  winter 
birds  can  be  induced  to  stay  during  the  summer  by  feed- 
ing them  in  the  winter  months.  Pieces  of  tallow  or  bacon 
fastened  to  the  trees  in  the  winter  will  be  relished  by  the 
birds. 

In  towns  cats  are  the  worst  enemies  of  the  birds,  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  run  at  large  if  one  wishes  to  attract 
the  latter. 

In  the  summer  a  very  good  way  to  attract  the  birds,  es- 
pecially if  they  have  far  to  go  for  open  water,  is  to  set  up  a 
drinking  and  bathing  fountain  or  basin.  These  are  much 
appreciated  by  the  birds.  A  drinking  trough  or  basin  is 
made  by  nailing  a  board  on  top  of  a  post  or  by  placing  a 
shelf  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  On  this  put  any  large,  shallow 
dish,  a  stone  crock,  a  large  flower-pot  saucer,  or  chopping- 


144 


NATURE-STUDY 


bowl,  filled  with  water.  The  water  should  be  renewed  daily 
and  the  dish  frequently  cleaned.  In  the  hot,  dry  weather 
of  summer  many  birds  will  come  to  drink  and  bathe.  It  is 
pleasant  to  see  the  birds  taking  their  baths.  I  have  had  such 

a  drinking  and  bath- 
ing basin  for  several 
summers,  and  con- 
sider it  one  of  the 
greatest  satisfactions 
I  get  from  my  gar- 
den. Right  in  the 
heart  of  the  town 
the  basin  is  visited 
by  robins,  bluejays, 
grosbeaks,  catbirds, 
orioles,  and,  of 
course,  numberless 
sparrows.  At  one 
time  I  counted  as 
many  as  eighteen 
house  sparrows  at 
the  basin  at  one  time. 
The  robins  are  es- 
pecially regular  visi- 
tors to  it.  No  other 
bird  seems  to  bathe  as  regularly  as  this  one  and  to  enjoy  its 
bath  so  thoroughly.  The  basin-stand  may  be  made  more 
attractive  by  growing  plants  in  a  box  around  the  basin,  and 
vines  at  the  foot  of  the  post.  Some  branches  nailed  to  the 
post  furnish  convenient  perches  and  add  to  the  rustic  effect. 
Such  a  drinking  basin  should  be  set  up  on  the  school  ground, 


FIG.  27.    Drinking  Trough. 


PROTECTION  AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     145 

though,  of  course,  not  as  many  kinds  of  birds  will  visit  there 
as  in  less  public  places. 

One  very  pleasant  memory  of  my  boyhood  is  that  of  the 
bird  houses  near  my  home.  I  waited  eagerly  in  the  spring 
for  the  bluebird  that,  year  after  year,  built  in  one  of  the 
houses,  and  for  the  purple  martins  that  dwelt  sociably  in  a 
multiple  cot. 

Suggest  to  the  school  children  the  building  of  bird  houses 
early  in  spring.  This  is  a  good  exercise  in  manual  training. 
Birds  prefer  a  house  made  of  weather-beaten  boards  to  one 
freshly  painted  in  bright  colors.  If  you  paint  the  house  at 
all,  paint  it  a  dull  color.  Almost  any  sort  of  box,  about 
8x8xio  inches  will  do.  In  one  end  cut  a  hole  about  two 
inches  in  diameter  for  the  entrance,  and  fasten  in  front  of  the 
opening  a  perch  or  a  platform  for  the  bird  to  alight  on. 
For  the  house  wren  the  opening  should  be  made  in  the  box 
near  the  top,  and  it  should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  in 
diameter.  This  allows  the  wren  to  enter,  but  not  the  spar- 
row. Sparrows  are  a  nuisance  in  many  ways,  but  chiefly  be- 
cause they  drive  away  other  birds.  They  begin  to  nest  earlier 
than  most  other  birds,  and  often  pre-empt  the  houses  designed 
for  martins  and  bluebirds.  Keep  the  boxes  closed  till  the 
right  birds  arrive.  Bird  houses  may  be  fastened  to  the  walls 
of  buildings,  on  the  gables  of  barns  and  sheds,  or  attached 
to  trees.  Some  birds,  like  the  wren  and  the  bluebird,  prefer 
to  have  the  house  shaded  from  the  mid-day  sun.  Houses 
may  be  placed  upon  poles,  especially  for  the  martin.  Rustic 
houses  may  be  made  by  hollowing  out  a  block  of  firewood,  or 
by  nailing  bark  or  small  saplings  on  the  outside  of  a  board 
house. 

In   this   connection  encourage  boys   to  keep  doves   and 


FIG.  29.    Bird  Houses.    Robin  Tray. 


PROTECTION  AND   PRESERVATION   OF   BIRDS     147 

poultry.  Have  them  send  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  41,  51,  64,  128,  177, 
182,  and  200,  which  give  excellent  directions  for  the  keeping 
of  poultry  and  doves.  These  may  be  had  free  of  charge. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FROGS,  TOADS,  SALAMANDERS,  SNAKES,  LIZARDS, 
TURTLES,  ETC. 

As  unattractive  as  this  title  may  seem,  nevertheless  the 
animals  named  should  be  studied  in  nature-study.  Prejudice 
and  repugnance  once  cast  aside,  these  creatures  are  very  in- 
teresting, and  furnish  some  very  profitable  lessons. 

One  reason  why  they  should  be  studied  is  to  combat  the 
superstitious  dread  that  children  and  so  many  grown  people 
have  for  them,  and  which  creates  such  a  dislike  that  it  results 
in  the  killing  of  a  vast  number  of  these  harmless  animals. 
Of  course  it  is  proper  to  caution  the  child  against  the  few 
really  poisonous  or  dangerous  reptiles  that  we  have  in  this 
country,  but  it  is  positively  wrong  for  parents  and  others  to 
make  children  afraid  of  the  harmless  ones;  for  example,  the 
useful  toad  and  the  pretty  little  garter  snake.  Toads  do  not 
cause  warts,  and  garter  snakes  are  neither  vicious  nor  poison- 
ous. The  fear  that  many  children  have  of  reptiles  is  very 
great,  and  we  do  them  a  service  if  we  dispel  this  through 
proper  knowledge.  Perhaps  a  little  of  this  fear  is  instinctive. 
Many  lower  animals,  the  dog,  for  instance,  show  their  dislike 
for  reptiles;  but  most  cases  of  fear  in  children  are  the  result 
of  education,  or  rather  false  teaching  from  parents  and  com- 
panions. If  we  teach  our  children  that  frogs,  toads,  and 
snakes  are  harmless,  and  even  useful  in  destroying  harmful 

pests,  perhaps  they  will  treat  them  more  humanely.     As  it 

148 


1 


FROGS,   TOADS,   SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     149 


is  now,  the  average  boy  feels  that  he  is  doing  a  sort  of  duty 
in  killing  a  snake  on  sight,  and  he  delights  in  killing  frogs  and 
toads  just  for  sport. 

There  is  really  no  excuse  for  this  killing,  when  we  remem- 
ber that  it  is  generally  the  useful  or  harmless  amphibians  and 
reptiles  that  are 
killed.  There  are 
no  venomous 
snakes  in  the 
northern  half  of 
the  United  States 
except  the  rattle- 
snakes, and  these 
are  pretty  well 
exterminated  in 
the  more  settled 
regions.  There 
are  no  other  poi- 
sonous reptiles  in 
.this  region,  and 
the  amphibians 
are  all  harmless. 

In  the  South  there  are  the  poisonous  copperheads,  moccasins, 
and  the  little  coral  snake.  In  the  Southwest  there  is  one 
poisonous  lizard,  the  Gila  monster. 

Most  people  call  salamanders  lizards,  and  do  not  know 
what  amphibians  are.  Amphibians,  such  as  the  frog,  toad, 
and  salamander,  have  a  soft  skin  without  scales.  This  is 
generally  kept  moist  for  a  time  by  an  excreted  liquid.  The 
boys  will  know  that  their  frogs  for  fishing  will  die  if  they 
are  not  kept  moist.  This  is  necessary  for  the  reason  that 


FIG.  30.     A  Dish  of  Frog's  Eggs. 


150  NATURE-STUDY 

the  skin  is  used  partly  as  an  organ  of  respiration.     As  a 
rule,  these  animals  do  not  have  claws  on  their  toes. 

But  it  is  their  development  from  the  egg  that  especially 
differentiates  amphibians  from  the  reptiles.  The  eggs  are 
generally  laid  in  the  water,  or  in  some  moist  place,  where 


FIG.  31.     Strings  of  Toad's  Eggs. 

they  hatch  from  natural  heat,  not  into  frog-like  or  salamander- 
like  forms,  but  into  tadpoles. 

Tadpoles  at  first  have  no  visible  gills,  but  very  soon  there 
develop  on  each  side  of  the  head  or  neck  branching  gills. 
Later  these  disappear,  inside  gills  develop,  and  gill  slits 
are  left  in  the  neck  as  in  fishes.  In  fact,  the  tadpole  stage 
corresponds  very  closely  in  its  structure  and  physiology  to 
the  fish.  During  this  time  the  tadpole  lives  an  aquatic  life 


FROGS,   TOADS,    SALAMANDERS,    SNAKES,   ETC.     151 

and  breathes  the  air  in  the  water  with  its  gills.  At  this  time 
the  food  is  mainly  vegetable,  consisting  of  minute  algal 
vegetation. 

Gradually,  as  the  tadpole  grows,  lungs  develop.  Also  about 
this  time  limbs  develop.  Finally  the  tail  disappears,  not 
by  dropping  off,  but  by  gradual  absorption  and  transfer  of 


FIG.  32.    Development  of  a  Tadpole. 

its  substance  to  other  parts.  This  loss  of  the  tail  applies  only 
to  frogs  and  toads.  Salamanders,  mud-puppies,  etc.,  retain 
them. 

After  the  limbs  and  lungs  have  developed,  most  amphibians 
leave  the  water  and  breathe  the  air,  their  gills  usually  first 
disappearing.  Thus  frogs,  toads,  and  salamanders  become 
more  or  less  terrestrial.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  shun 
the  water  thereafter.  In  fact,  frogs  continue  to  live  what  we 
generally  call  an  amphibious  life.  They  like  moist  places,  wet 
meadows,  damp  woods,  and  many  species  spend  a  good  share 
of  their  lives  sitting  half-submerged  in  the  water  of  swamps 
and  lakes.  Salamanders  are  found  in  damp  cellars  or  in  damp 


152  NATURE-STUDY 

woods  and  other  moist  places.  Toads  appear  the  most 
accustomed  to  dryness,  often  being  found  far  from  water,  in 
gardens,  on  the  lawns,  and  in  dry  woods.  Tree-toads,  as 
their  name  implies,  live  among  the  foliage  of  trees.  But 
the  necturus,  or  mud-puppy,  found  in  many  of  our  streams, 
is  an  amphibian  with  very  rudimentary  lungs,  and  in  adult 
life  still  retains  its  bushy  external  gills,  and  does  not  leave  the 
water. 

The  Frog  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  amphibians.  In 
the  spring,  soon  after  the  first  piping  and  croaking  resound 
in  the  marshes,  visit  these  breeding  places  and  look  for  eggs. 
They  will  be  found  in  the  form  of  large  jelly-like  clumps  or 
masses  attached  to  submerged  sticks  and  plants.  Bring  some 
home  and,  placing  them  in  a  dish  of  water,  observe  the  develop- 
ment of  the  tadpoles  that  soon  hatch  out.  Do  not  place  too 
many  eggs  in  one  aquarium.  It  is  better  to  put  only  a  few  in 
one  vessel.  A  fruit- jar  or  similar  vessel  will  do  very  well  for 
the  hatching,  but  a  shallow  dish,  slightly  tilted  at  one  end, 
or  a  shelving  vessel  so  as  to  give  a  variation  in  the  depth  of 
the  water,  will  be  better  for  the  development  of  the  tadpoles. 
Place  green  algae  and  other  water  plants  in  the  water  for  the 
tadpoles  to  feed  upon.  They  will  also  eat  cooked  corn-meal. 
They  will  not  grow  unless  fed.,  Frogs  are  not  easy  to  raise  to 
maturity  in  an  aquarium,  but  the  tadpoles  of  toads,  which  in 
general  resemble  those  of  the  frog,  are  more  easily  raised. 
Tadpoles  are  great  feeders,  and  will  very  soon  clean  off  the 
algal  scum  from  the  sides  of  an  aquarium.  The  algae  should 
be  replenished  from  time  to  time.  If  only  a  few  tadpoles  are 
in  an  aquarium  there  is  less  care  in  feeding.  The  children 
will  be  greatly  interested  in  the  development  of  the  tadpoles. 
Watch  the  formation  of  outside  gill  branches,  the  replace- 


FROGS,   TOADS,   SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     153 

ment  of  these  by  the  internal  gills  and  gill  slits,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  legs  and  the  gradual  loss  of  the  tail. 

If  you  do  not  have  good  luck  with  the  raising  of  the  tad- 
poles in  the  aquarium,  have  the  boys  catch  some  that  have 
been  living  in  the  pools  and  swamps  and  have  developed 
naturally.  Make  observations  upon  these.  If  there  is  a 
small  natural  pool  or  tank  near  the  school,  place  eggs  there 
and  good  results  may  be  had. 

Frogs  are  interesting  and  harmless  creatures.  Their  cheer- 
ful piping  or  croaking  in  the  early  spring  is  a  pleasant  sign 
of  the  season,  though  a  large  colony  of  frogs  near  dwellings  may 
become  a  considerable  nuisance  on  account  of  their  loud 
concerts.  Different  species  of  frogs  have  different  notes  or 
songs.  Some  of  the  smaller  ones  have  shrill  cricket-like 
chirps,  while  the  great  bullfrog  has  a  deep  base  "  jug-o-rum" 
call.  At  times  at  night  it  seems  as  if  all  the  frogs  in  a  pond 
were  "singing"  in  concert,  all  keeping  time  together  beauti- 
fully. 

Frogs  in  the  tadpole  stage  are  chiefly  vegetarian  in  their 
diet,  but  after  leaving  the  water  they  are  almost  exclusively 
carnivorous  or  insectivorous.  They  then  eat  insects  of  all 
sorts,  worms,  spiders,  etc.  The  larger  forms  will  even  eat 
lizards,  snakes,  and  small  mammals. 

Frogs  and  toads  have  peculiar  tongues.  They  are  fastened 
in  front  and  folded  back  in  the  mouth,  but  may  be  shot  out 
quickly  at  an  insect  or  worm,  which  adheres  to  the  sticky 
surface  and  is  thus  drawn  in.  Feed  a  toad  some  angleworms, 
mealworms,  or  insects,  and  the  action  of  the  tongue  is  well  seen. 

Watch  a  frog  breathing.  He  seems  to  be  swallowing  all 
the  time.  He  is  swallowing  air  which  he  forces  down  into  his 
lungs.  How  do  we  breathe?  When  we  inhale  we  increase 


154  NATURE-STUDY 

the  chest  cavity  by  raising  the  ribs  with  the  muscles  attached 
to  them.  The  atmospheric  pressure  then  forces  the  air  into 
the  lungs,  which  thus  fill  the  expanding  chest  cavity.  Ex- 
haling requires  no  effort.  We  simply  relax  the  muscles  and 
let  the  ribs  descend,  their  weight  forcing  out  the  air.  But 
frogs  have  no  ribs.  There  are  simply  stumps  or  rudimentary 
ribs  on  each  side  of  the  backbone.  So  a  frog  cannot  breathe 
as  we  do,  but  has  to  force  the  air  in  by  swallowing.  As 
before  mentioned,  frogs  breathe  somewhat  through  their 
skin.  The  croaking  is  made  by  inflating  the  throat  and 
cheeks.  Observe  this  in  a  frog  or  a  toad. 

The  feet  of  the  frog  are  webbed  so  as  to  enable  him  to 
swim  well.  The  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  much  elongated,  and 
with  the  web  make  an  excellent  paddle.  Place  a  frog  in  the 
water  and  see  what  an  expert  swimmer  and  diver  he  is.  The 
hind  limbs  are  long  and  strong,  and  are  well  adapted  for 
leaping.  Notice  how  the  frog  at  rest  squats  with  his  legs 
all  ready  for  the  jump.  Try  to  make  him  jump.  Measure 
some  of  the  longest  jumps  and  compare  this  distance  with 
the  frog's  length.  Can  a  boy  jump  as  far  in  proportion  ? 

Hold  a  frog  under  water  a  short  time.  Note  that  he  pulls 
a  thin,  transparent  film  over  the  eyes.  What  is  its  use  ?  It 
is  the  lower  eyelid. 

Just  back  of  the  eye  is  a  circular  area  with  a  smooth, 
flat  surface.  This  is  the  ear,  and  the  membrane  is  the  ear- 
drum. Frogs  have  a  keen  sense  of  hearing.  Any  one  who 
has  approached  a  swamp  where  the  frogs  were  holding  a 
concert  will  know  how  quickly  they  stop  at  the  snapping  of 
a  twig,  the  rustling  of  the  grass  under  foot,  or  any  other  sound 
made  on  coming  toward  the  swamp.  The  fact  that  frogs 
have  "a  song"  implies  an  ear  to  hear  it. 


FROGS,   TOADS,    SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     155 

The  colors  of  the  frog  are  admirably  adapted  to  conceal  it. 
The  species  that  sit  most  of  the  time  along  the  edges  of  pools 
and  swamps  are  so  colored  and  mottled  as  to  resemble  closely 
the  water  plants  among  which  they  live  and  try  to  conceal 
themselves.  Those  that  are  more  terrestrial  are  similarly 
protectively  colored.  This  is  especially  well  shown  in  the 
small  tree  frogs,  which  are  able  to  change  their  color  within 
limits,  according  to  the  surface  upon  which  they  sit.  When 
we  think  of  the  snakes,  turtles,  cranes,  herons,  bitterns,  ducks, 
crows,  hawks,  owls,  and  different  mammals  that  are  always 
on  the  lookout  for  frogs,  we  can  see  the  wisdom  of  such  pro- 
tective coloring. 

Another  peculiarity,  shared  with  other  amphibians  and 
reptiles  and  many  other  animals,  is  the  habit  of  sleeping 
through  the  winter.  Only  the  frog  sleeps  in  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  ponds  and  swamps,  under  the  ice,  where  he  stays 
till  spring  releases  him.  At  this  time  the  skin  is  the  organ  of 
respiration. 

It  may  be  asked  of  what  use  are  frogs.  They  play  their 
part  in  nature,  and  on  the  whole  a  useful  one.  They  destroy 
a  vast  number  of  insects,  and  they  themselves  serve  as  food 
for  other  animals.  They  are  good  for  bait,  and  frogs'  legs 
are  used  as  food  in  large  quantities  by  man. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  frogs.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  most  commonly  seen. 

The  Bullfrog  is  the  largest,  and  may  be  recognized  by  its 
deep  base  voice.  It  is  of  greenish  color  above,  mottled  with 
irregular  blotches  of  brown  or  black,  and  underneath  it  is 
white.  The  web  extends  to  the  tip  of  the  fourth  toe.  It  is 
found  in  swampy  places. 

The  Leopard  Frog  is  the  most  common.     It  has  a  greenish 


156  NATURE-STUDY 

back  dotted  over  with  dark  spots  not  arranged  in  straight 
rows,  and  white  or  yellowish  underneath.  There  are  several 
dark  bands  across  the  thighs. 

The  Brown  or  Pickerel  Frog  is  brownish  on  the  back  with 
squarish  dark  spots  in  rows. 

The  Common  Tree  Frog  is  green,  brown,  or  gray  in  color, 
with  irregular  darker  streaks  down  the  back.  It  lives  on 
trees,  shrubs,  and  vines.  Owing  to  its  mimicry  of  the  back- 
ground it  is  hard  to  find.  Its  chirping  is  often  heard  at 
night. 

The  Swamp  Tree  Frog  is  a  small  frog,  grayish  in  color,  with 
three  dark  stripes  running  along  the  back.  It  is  found  in 
marshes. 

These  tree  frogs  are  charming  little  creatures  and  make 
interesting  school-room  pets.  Place  them  in  a  moist  cage 
and  provide  them  with  a  rock  or  wooden  perch,  such  as  the 
branch  of  a  tree.  The  changes  of  color  in  the  common 
tree  frog  can  be  nicely  seen  by  substituting  perches  of 
different  color,  green,  gray,  and  brown.  Feed  the  animals 
with  worms,  spiders,  and  insects.  Observe  the  small  disk- 
like  pads  at  the  ends  of  the  toes  and  fingers.  Observe  the 
frog  clinging  to  the  vertical  wall  of  the  cage,  and  notice  how 
the  little  pads  are  pressed  against  the  surface.  They  act  as 
suckers  and  enable  the  frog  to  climb.  The  soft,  moist  under- 
side also  helps  the  animal  to  stick  on. 

The  Common  Toad  is  another  interesting  animal,  and 
should  be  compared  with  the  frog  as  to  structure  and  habits. 
Toads  are  found  in  gardens  and  in  the  woods.  They  are 
very  unlike  their  relatives,  the  frogs,  in  that  they  live  in  dry 
places.  They  keep  their  skin  moist,  however,  by  secretion. 
The  skin  is  wrinkled  and  warty-looking,  though  there  are  no 


FROGS,   TOADS,    SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     157 

true  warts,  and  the  idea  that  handling  a  toad  causes  warts  is 
wrong.  Toads  do  exude  an  acrid  fluid  from  the  skin  which 
may  irritate  cuts  or  scratches  on  the  hands,  but  it  does  not 
cause  warts.  The  excretion  is  probably  a  protective  device. 
The  skin  of  the  toad  is  dull  colored,  so  that  when  it  sits  on 
the  ground  or  lies  half  buried  in  the  ground  it  resembles  the 
earth  so  closely  as  to  be  difficult  to 
see.  The  movements  of  the  toad 
are  slow  and  cumbrous  as  com- 
pared with  the  nimble  frog's.  The 
toes  are  webbed,  which  would  in- 
dicate that  the  toad,  in  spite  of  its 


land  habits,  is  a  swimmer.  FlG.  33.  The  Toad. 

In  the  early  spring,  after  coming  CA  very  useful  animaL) 

out  of  hibernation,  the  toads  assemble  for  a  period  in  swampy 
places,  where  their  long,  plaintive  pipings  (from  the  males 
only)  may  be  heard.  Visit  such  a  place,  and  the  toads  will  be 
seen  spawning.  The  females  are  larger  than  the  males,  being 
full  of  eggs.  The  females  lay  the  eggs  and  the  males  fertilize 
them.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  long  ropes  or  strings  on  the  bot- 
tom of  shallow  water,  and  are  attached  to  water  plants. 
Collect  some  of  these  eggs  and  place  a  few  in  a  dish  or  vessel 
of  water  together  with  some  green  aquatic  plants.  When 
first  laid  they  are  about  as  large  as  a  pin-head,  but  the 
jelly-like  matrix  in  which  they  are  imbedded  soon  absorbs 
water  and  swells.  The  eggs  of  toads  are  blacker  than  those 
of  frogs,  as  are  also  the  tadpoles  or  polliwogs. 

The  treatment  of  the  tadpoles  of  the  toad  should  be  the 
same  as  for  frog  tadpoles.  Their  development,  which  is 
the  same  as  that  of  frog  tadpoles,  only  more  rapid  (about 
two  months),  should  be  observed  by  the  children.  As  the 


158  NATURE-STUDY 

tail  gradually  disappears,  the  young  toads  become  more  and 
more  terrestrial,  crawling  up  for  a  time  out  of  the  water. 
A  visit  to  the  ponds  and  marshes  about  the  beginning  of 
July  will  perhaps  show  many  young  toads  leaving  the  water 
for  the  land.  They  have  not  yet  become  wrinkled  and  warty. 
After  the  laying  season  the  old  toads  return  to  the  land. 
Their  habits  are  chiefly  nocturnal.  They  like  to  burrow  into 


FIG.  34.     Protective  Coloration  of  the  Toad. 

the  soft  soil  during  the  day4o  escape  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or 
else  lie  concealed  under  a  large-leaved  plant,  a  board,  or 
other  protection.  Toward  evening,  however,  they  leave 
their  hiding  places  and  hop  about  the  lawns  and  gardens  in 
search  of  food.  This  consists  of  worms,  caterpillars,  beetles, 
flies,  and  other  insects,  slugs,  sowbugs,  etc.  These  they 
catch,  like  the  frogs,  with  their  long  extensible  tongues. 
Catch  a  toad  and  bring  it  to  school.  It  soon  becomes  tame 
if  kindly  treated.  Set  it  on  the  floor  or  desk,  and  place  worms, 


FROGS,   TOADS,   SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     159 

insects,  bits  of  fresh  meat,  etc.,  before  it.  After  observing  it 
for  a  while,  and  slowly  approaching  the  food,  the  toad  all  at 
once,  quick  as  a  wink,  has  licked  up  the  morsel.  Children 
will  be  much  interested  and  amused  at  seeing  it  eat. 
Toads  may  be  tamed  in  the  garden  so  as  to  come  at  a  call  or 
whistle  to  be  fed. 

So  useful  are  toads  that  gardeners  like  to  have  them  in 
their  gardens.  Next  to  the  robins  I  consider  them  my 
best  helpers  in  destroying  cutworms,  beetles,  and  other 
injurious  insects.  Toads  may  be  found  elsewhere  and 
brought  home  and  placed  in  the  garden,  where  they  will 
generally  remain  and  do  good  work. 

Teach  the  children  the  harmlessness  and  great  usefulness 
of  toads,  and  discourage  the  erroneous  belief  in  their  wart- 
producing  power.  By  all  means  discourage  the  cruel  and 
senseless  habit  that  many  boys  have  of  killing  these  little 
creatures. 

Toads  hibernate.  They  burrow  their  way  backward  into 
the  soft  earth  till  they  are  deep  enough  not  to  be  affected  by 
the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  fall  and  early  spring, 
and  here  sleep  away  the  winter  in  a  kind  of  torpor.  In  the 
warm  spring,  however,  they  dig  their  way  out.  This  act  of 
going  into  winter  quarters  may  be  observed,  if  we  place  a 
toad  in  a  box  of  loose  earth  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fall.  If 
the  box  is  placed  in  a  cool  spot  the  toad  will  probably  begin 
to  burrow  sooner. 

Is  the  toad  ugly?  Of  what  use  is  his  ugliness  to  him? 
He  certainly  has  a  very  beautiful  eye. 

Salamanders  are  tailed  amphibians  and  are  often  mis- 
called "lizards."  They  develop  much  like  frogs  and  toads, 
except  that  they  do  not  lose  their  tails,  and  their  food  is  the 


160  NATURE-STUDY 

same.  They  are  found  in  damp  or  wet  places,  under  stumps 
and  logs,  and  they  lay  their  eggs  in  jelly-like  masses  in  the 
water.  There  are  several  rather  common  forms. 

The  Spotted  Salamander  is  seen  most  frequently.  It  is  a 
soft-skinned,  sluggish  creature,  black  above  and  spotted  with 
yellow  blotches. 

In  the  Eastern  States  there  are  other  common  salamanders, 
the  Newts,  or  Efts,  and  the  Tritons.  The  first,  if  found  in 
the  water,  is  green  in  color,  spotted  red  on  the  back,  and  it 
has  a  flat  tail.  A  variety  of  this  species  (Red  Eft)  lives  out 
of  the  water  and  is  red  on  the  back. 

The  Red  Triton  is  about  twice  as  long  as  the  newts,  six 
inches,  and  is  red  on  the  back,  spotted  with  brown.  It  lives 
in  pools  and  streams. 

Another  salamander-like  creature  occasionally  caught  in 
our  rivers  is  the  Mud-puppy.  This  looks  like  a  large,  heavy 
salamander,  and  attains  a  length  of  two  feet.  It  has  external 
branching  gills,  however,  and  does  not  leave  the  water.  Its 
color  is  brown. 

These  salamanders  are  not  venomous  and  may  be  handled 
with  impunity.  They  make  interesting  animals  for  the 
aquarium  or  moist  cage. 

Reptiles  differ  from  amphibians  in  that  they  have  a  scaly, 
or  plated,  skin,  and  clawed  feet  (if  any),  and  that  their  eggs 
hatch  directly  into  young  resembling  the  old,  which  breathe 
by  means  of  lungs  from  .the  time  of  hatching,  without  pass- 
ing through  the  tadpole  stage.  The  following  is  a  brief 
description  of  some  of  the  different  orders. 

Our  Lizards  are  active  little  creatures  that  like  to  bask  in 
the  sun.  They  are  slender,  long-tailed,  and  have  four  legs. 
Their  bodies  are  covered  with  scales.  They  feed  upon  in- 


FROGS,   TOADS,   SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     161 

sects,  worms,  and  other  small  creatures.  The  most  common 
kinds  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  are  the  Swift, 
about  seven  inches  in  length,  and  bluish  or  bronzed  and 
black  in  color;  and  the  Bluetailed  Skink,  also  called  "Scor- 
pion," about  ten  inches  long,  and  olive  backed,  with  five 
yellow  streaks,  and  blue  tail.  In  the  Southwest  there  is  a 
curious  rough-scaled  lizard,  called  the  Horned  Toad,  that  is 
very  common.  In  the  Southern  States  there  is  found  a  pretty 
little  lizard  called  the  "chameleon"  (not  properly  a  chame- 
leon), which  one  frequently  sees  exposed  for  sale  in  the  North 
as  a  pet.  This  little  lizard  has  the  power  of  assuming  different 
colors — green,  gray,  yellowish,  bronze,  and  black.  It  makes 
an  interesting  pet  for  the  school-room,  but  should  be  properly 
cared  for  and  not  left  to  starve  and  thirst  to  death. 

Snakes  are  interesting  from  several  standpoints,  and  should 
be  studied.  They  have  a  long  slender  body  with  usually  a 
tapering  tail  and  no  external  legs. 

There  are  rudiments  of  the  hind  legs  in  some  snakes,  which 
seems  to  indicate  that  at  one  time  the  ancestors  of  our  snakes 
had  legs,  but  by  disuse  they  became  rudimentary  or  were 
entirely  lost.  How  do  snakes  move  if  they  have  no  legs? 
Observe  a  snake  "run."  It  wriggles  with  a  sinuous  motion, 
and  by  the  help  of  its  rough,  scaly  skin  and  by  a  slight  motion 
of  its  numerous  ribs  it  can  move  very  fast.  Chase  it  into 
the  water  and  see  how  gracefully  it  can  swim.  Catch  a 
common  garter  snake,  so  common  everywhere  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  This  is  found  in  meadows  and  along 
lakes  and  streams.  It  is  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  is 
of  a  general  green  or  olive  color,  striped  lengthwise  with 
yellowish  and  black  stripes.  Keep  it  in  a  cage  in  the  school- 
room, and  give  it  a  basin  of  water  and  some  earth  on  the  floor 


i62  NATURE-STUDY 

of  its  cage.  Give  it  some  large  insects  and  frogs  to  eat.  It  is 
interesting  to  see  it  eat  frogs,  which  are  generally  seized  and 
eaten  alive.  The  snake  does  not  chew  its  food,  but  swallows 
it  whole.  By  a  curious  dislocation  of  the  jaws  at  the  back, 
allowing  the  mouth  to  distend  widely,  it  can  swallow  a  frog 
of  larger  diameter  than  itself.  The  snake  secretes  a  large 
amount  of  saliva,  which  flows  over  the  frog  and  makes  it 
more  easily  swallowed.  The  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  hinged  together  in  front  and  are  separately  movable 
backwards.  This  arrangement  is  very  useful  in  swallowing 
small  animals. 

Perhaps  another  interesting  habit  of  the  snake  will  be  ob- 
served,— the  shedding  of  the  skin.  Our  skin  is  constantly 
coming  off  in  minute  scales  or  shreds,  rubbed  off  by  the 
clothing  and  in  the  bath,  but  it  is  being  renewed  con- 
tinually from  beneath.  So  it  is  with  snakes,  except  that  peri- 
odically they  shed  their  skin  whole.  Sometimes  a  very  per- 
fect sheath  is  left  in  the  shedding. 

Snakes'  eyes  are  always  staring,  for  they  cannot  close  or 
move  them.  They  are  covered  with  a  transparent  skin  and 
have  no  lids. 

Snakes  live  in  burrows,  crevices,  and  under  litter,  or  in  the 
holes  left  in  the  earth  by  decayed  tree  roots. 

Non- venomous  snakes,  on  the  whole,  are  useful  creatures, 
and  destroy  insects,  frogs,  and  small  mammals,  such  as  mice, 
moles,  shrews,  rats,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  they  do  more  or 
less  harm  in  killing  the  useful  toad,  and  in  destroying  the 
eggs  and  young  of  birds. 

There  are  many  common  species  of  snakes  in  this  country. 
As  stated  above,  the  only  poisonous  snakes  are  the  rattle- 
snake, copperhead,  moccasin,  and  the  little  coral  snake. 


FROGS,   TOADS,    SALAMANDERS,   SNAKES,   ETC.     163 

The  latter  three  are  found  only  in  the  South.  Rattlesnakes  are 
found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  have  been 
nearly  exterminated  in  the  more  settled  regions.  Before 
striking  with  their  poisonous  fangs,  they  give  a  warning  by 
means  of  the  "rattle"  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  This  consists  of 
a  number  of  horny,  thin,  joint-like  structures.  These  are  the 
remnants  of  previous  coats  of  skin  which  did  not  fall  off  with 
the  shedding  of  the  rest.  It  used  to  be  said  that  each  section 
in  the  rattle  indicated  one  year  in  the  snake's  life.  This  is, 
however,  not  the  case,  as  it  is  now  known  that  the.  snake 
may  shed  its  skin  more  than  once  a  year. 

Do  not  forget  the  Turtles.  Every  child  is  interested  in 
them.  Keep  some  at  the  school.  The  smaller  ones  may  be 
placed  in  the  aquarium,  but  a  float  or  raft  should  be  pro- 
vided for  them.  Larger  ones  may  be  kept  in  a  terrarium. 
Observe  the  feeding  and  other  habits  of  these  specimens. 
Note  how  they  swim.  Have  they  any  teeth?  Note  how 
well  the  softer  parts  of  the  body  are  protected.  The  shell  of 
the  hard-shell  turtles  is  made  of  a  modified  bony  skin,  grown 
together  with  the  backbone,  ribs,  and  breastbone.  Are  the 
colors  of  the  shell  protective?  Hold  a  turtle  under  water 
and  note  the  transparent  film,  the  nictitating  membrane, 
that  is  drawn  over  the  eyes.  In  the  fall  a  turtle  in  a 
cage  with  an  earthen  floor  will  be  seen  to  be  anxious  about 
something,  and  trying  to  burrow  into  the  ground.  It  is 
getting  ready  for  the  hibernation.  If  a  deep  lot  of  earth  is 
put  into  the  box  the  turtle  will  probably  completely  bury  it- 
self, particularly  if  the  box  is  left  in  a  cool  place. 

The  soft-shelled,  snapping,  mud,  and  box  turtles  are  the 
commonest  in  the  Northern  States.  Let  the  children  know 
about  the  large  sea-turtles,  such  as  the  loggerhead,  hawks- 


164  NATURE-STUDY 

bill,  and  the  green  turtle,  their  mode  of  life,  capture,  and 
uses. 

The  study  of  American  reptiles  would  not  be  complete 
without  a  brief  reference  to  the  Alligator  of  the  South.  Some- 
what lizard-like  in  form,  it  is  nevertheless  not  a  lizard.  The 
habits  of  the  reptile  are  interesting.  Besides  pictures, 
satchels,  pocketbooks,  and  other  articles  made  of  alligator 
skin  may  be  used  for  illustrations. 

Like  the  amphibians,  the  reptiles  hibernate  during  the 
winter  in  some  protected  place. 


CHAPTER  XII 
FISHES— AQUARIA 

IN  the  spring,  when  the  ice  goes  out  of  the  lakes  and 
streams,  the  small  boy  begins  to  think  of  going  a-fishing. 
This  natural  interest  should  be  utilized  by  giving  a  series  of 
lessons  on  fishes.  The  best  illustration,  of  course,  is  the  live 
fish.  There  are  excellent  glass  aquaria  to  be  had,  both  globe- 
shaped  and  square,  but  almost  any  kind  of  vessel  will  do, 
as  a  wooden  pail,  a  stone  crock,  a  porcelain  dish,  a  fruit  jar, 
or  a  candy  jar,  etc.  Common  battery  jars  are  excellent  and 
may  be  had  in  various  sizes.  A  very  good  aquarium  may 
be  made  by  a  tinsmith  out  of  angle  iron  soldered  together  for 
a  frame,  with  sides  and  bottom  of  strong  glass  cemented  into 
it  with  a  water  cement.  Such  an  aquarium  is  a  useful  ad- 
junct of  the  school,  and  adds  a  decorative  effect  to  the  room 
if  properly  stocked.  Medium  sized  aquaria  are  best,  as  a 
large  one  cannot  be  readily  or  safely  moved,  and  by  using 
smaller  vessels  the  animals  may  be  kept  separated.  A  good 
size  for  a  built-up  aquarium  is  12x18x8  inches.  There  should 
also  be  aquaria  of  various  smaller  sizes,  some  tall  and  narrow, 
others  wide  and  shallow,  in  order  to  suit  different  kinds  of 
plant  and  animal  life,  according  as  they  live  in  deep  or  shallow 
water.  Insect  aquaria  and  those  for  frogs,  etc.,  should  have 
a  wire  cover  to  prevent  the  animals  from  escaping. 

Stocking  an  aquarium  is  a  work  the  children  delight  in. 

165 


i66  NATURE-STUDY 

Take  the  pupils  out  to  the  pond,  brook,  lake,  or  river,  and 
collect  the  things  to  be  put  into  the  aquaria.  This  should 
be  more  than  a  mere  collecting  trip.  Have  the  children  note 
as  far  as  possible  the  conditions  under  which  the  creatures 
live,  perhaps  the  food  needed,  the  depth  of  the  water  in 
which  they  live,  etc.  This  will  teach  them  something  of  the 
habits  of  the  creatures,  which  should  be  utilized  in  fitting  up 
the  aquarium.  Gather  some  of  the  plants  among  which  the 
animals  live,  perhaps  some  of  the  dead  leaves  and  twigs  at 


FIG.  35.     Aquaria. 

the  bottom  of  the  water,  as  these  will  furnish  food  or  natural 
shelter  for  the  animals. 

In  case  of  most  aquatic  insects  a  mud  or  ooze  bottom  seems 
best  for  their  aquarium.  The  water  from  the  pond  whence 
they  came  also  is  often  better  than  well  or  city  water.  For 
fishes  and  clams  the  bottom  may  be  of  clean  sand.  Pretty 
stones  and  pieces  of  coral  and  seashells  placed  in  the  aqua- 
rium will  make  it  more  attractive. 

The  best  way  to  keep  the  water  fresh  and  supplied  with 
oxygen  is  to  place  in  it  green  aquatic  plants.  These  give  off 
oxygen  in  the  sunlight.  This  is  often  seen  in  a  jar  with  a 
mass  of  green  algae  in  the  water  when-  the  sun  is  shining  on 
it.  There  are  small  bubbles  of  oxygen  upon  the  mass.  Small 
aquaria,  with  not  too  many  animals,  may  be  kept  for  months 


FISHES— AQUARIA  167 

in  this  way,  only  needing  the  addition  of  water  now  and  then 
to  make  up  the  loss  from  evaporation. 

Water  milfoil,  eelgrass,  elodea,  and  filamentous  green  algae 
are  very  good  plants  for  aerating  the  aquarium  water.  Other 
plants  may  be  added  for  beauty.  The  little  floating  duckweed 
is  an  interesting  plant  to  have  in  an  aquarium.  Another 
interesting  and  curious  plant  is  the  water  hyacinth,  which 
may  be  obtained  from  greenhouses.  With  its  thickened  leaf- 
stalks, which  contain  air,  it  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Plant  small  varieties  of  bullrushes,  water  buttercups,  arrow- 
head, small  swamp  sedges,  marsh  marigold,  and  other  water 
or  marsh  plants,  in  the  sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  aquarium, 
or  at  the  edge  of  the  water  in  a  terrarium.  This  is  simply  a 
cage,  with  earth  floor,  for  land  animals.  If  a  basin  of  water 
is  set  in  this  soil,  both  land  and  water  conditions  will  be 
afforded.  Frogs,  toads,  salamanders,  turtles,  snakes,  and 
other  animals  prefer  this  kind  of  cage.  It  should  be  orna- 
mented and  made  more  natural  by  planting  land  and  water 
plants  as  suggested. 

Another  suggestion  for  the  aquarium  is  that  an  island  be 
built  of  stones  or  earth  for  the  benefit  of  turtles,  frogs,  and 
other  animals  that  like  to  crawl  out  of  the  water.  Plants 
may  be  placed  on  it  also. 

As  an  aquarium  should  not  be  too  much  in  direct  sunlight, 
any  other  window  except  a  south  window  is  suitable. 

If  an  aquarium  becomes  coated  with  an  incrustation,  this 
should  be  removed  by  scrubbing. 

In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  change  the  water  of  an 
aquarium  on  account  of  stagnation,  it  should  be  done  by 
avoiding  too  great  change  of  temperature.  The  water 
probably  has  the  temperature  of  the  room,  and  the  fishes 


i68 


NATURE-STUDY 


(goldfishes  especially)  and  other  animals  are  chilled  and 
often  killed  in  consequence  of  pouring  on  them  water 
taken  directly  from  the  pump  or  the  city  mains  at  a  much 
lower  temperature.  Let  the  new  water  stand  a  few  hours  in 
the  room  before  making  the  change,  or  add  warm  water 

to  it  till  to  the  hand 

the  two  waters  are 
about  the  same  tem- 
perature. A  siphon 
is  useful  sometimes 
in  drawing  off  the 
water,  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  bottom 
and  to  prevent  the 
animals  from  going 
out. 

The  following  ani- 
mals are  good  for 
stocking  aquaria: 
Goldfishes  (very 
hardy),  small  bull- 
heads, young  dog- 
fish, carp,  perch, 
small  sunfish,  min- 
nows and  darters,  sticklebacks,  salamanders,  turtles,  frogs, 
tadpoles,  crayfish,  clams,  snails,  leeches,  dragonfly  larvae, 
electric-light  bugs,  water-beetles,  water-boatmen,  water- 
striders,  water-spiders,  mosquito  wrigglers,  and  other  aquatic 
insects. 

One  thing  must  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  and  that  is  that 
the  carnivorous  creatures  are  apt  to  eat  the  other  smaller 


FIG.  36.    Aquarium  with  Sunfish. 


FISHES— AQUARIA  169 

animals.  So  keep  the  water-scorpions  and  electric-light 
bugs,  dragonfly  larvae,  perch,  bass,  turtles,  and  frogs  by 
themselves,  or  with  those  too  big  for  them  to  eat,  un- 
less you  wish  to  add  the  smaller  animals  as  food  for 
them. 

Goldfish  may  be  fed  on  bread  and  cracker  crumbs,  or  on 
the  "fish  food,"  which  can  be  bought.  Other  fish  and  tad- 
poles will  also  eat  these  things.  Carnivorous  fish  will  have 
to  be  fed  on  insects,  worms,  and  bits  of  meat.  A  piece  of 
beef  that  has  the  fat  boiled  out,  dried,  and  crushed  into 
minute  bits  is  an  excellent  fish  food.  I  keep  a  large  food- 
jar  containing  algae  and  other  water  plants  and  various 
kinds  of  animalcula.  Occasionally  I  put  some  of  these 
plants  with  the  animalcula  that  cling  to  them  into  the  aquaria 
as  food.  In  feeding  aquarium  animals  be  careful  not  to  give 
them  more  than  they  will  eat,  else  the  decaying  food  left  over 
will  make  the  water  sour  and  stagnant. 

The  fish  should  be  studied  as  a  type  of  animal  life,  with 
special  reference  to  its  structure,  breathing,  swimming, 
spawning,  and  other  habits. 

Let  the  children  observe  the  fish  in  the  aquarium.  Note 
the  flattened  and  tapering  shape  of  the  body.  Is  this  shape 
of  any  special  use  ?  Why  have  most  fishes  this  shape  ?  How 
does  the  fish  swim?  It  will  be  seen  that  the  fish  propels 
itself  with  its  tail,  using  it  as  a  sculling  oar,  and  that  the  fins 
are  not  so  much  used  for  swimming  as  for  balancing  and 
directing  the  course.  With  rubber  bands  slipped  over  the 
back  and  side  fins,  try  Professor  Needham's  experiment  to 
see  how  a  fish  behaves  without  the  use  of  these,  and  to  dis- 
cover their  proper  functions.  Note  the  sharp  spines  on  the 
fins  (if  the  fish  is  a  spiny-finned  one).  Ask  the  children 


170  NATURE-STUDY 

about  the  use  of  these.  Any  boy  who  has  been  fishing  can 
tell  of  his  experience  with  them. 

Most  fish  are  covered  with  scales  that  overlap  each  other 
and  make  a  protective  armor.  Examine  some  separate 
scales  from  different  kinds  of  fish.  The  outside  of  the  body 
is  covered  with  a  slimy  substance  which  protects  the  body 
and  also  enables  the  fish  to  elude  the  grasp  of  its  enemies. 
The  scales  are  often  beautifully  colored.  Our  common 
" pumpkin  seed"  sunfish  displays  a  wonderful  wealth  of 
color  and  beautiful  iridescence.  Most  fishes,  however, 
are  inconspicuously  colored  for  protection.  Brown  and 
olive  colors  are  common  on  the  backs  of  many  fishes. 
This  renders  them  inconspicuous  against  the  darker  depths 
of  the  water  or  the  bottom.  Underneath,  however,  fishes 
are  generally  lighter  colored,  often  nearly  white.  This  makes 
them  less  easily  seen  against  the  bright  upper  surface  of  the 
water.  Some  strange  fish  of  the  ocean  have  curious  warty 
and  spiny  surfaces  and  long  streamers,  so  that  they  more 
effectively  resemble  water  vegetation. 

The  eyes  of  fishes  are  lidless,  and  are  usually  large  and 
staring.  Their  mouths  differ  much  in  shape  and  in  position, 
and  those  of  predaceous  kinds  are  large  and  well  supplied 
with  teeth.  Bottom  feeders  have 'their  mouths  more  on  the 
under  side  of  the  head. 

Observe  the  fish  in  the  aquarium.  See  how  it  seems  to  be 
swallowing  all  the  time.  It  does  take  in  water,  but  not  to 
drink,  for  it  forces  it  out  through  the  openings  at  the  sides 
just  back  of  the  head.  These  openings  lead  to  the  gill 
pouches  and  are  closed  by  the  cartilaginous  gill  covers. 
Take  a  dead  fish  and  examine  the  gills.  A  large  fish  shows 
them  better.  Turn  back  or  cut  off  the  gill  cover,  and  the  red 


FISHES— AQUARIA 


171 


gills  will  be  seen  lying  in  several  layers  in  the  cavity.  The 
gills  are  composed  of  small  red  filaments  attached  to  carti- 
laginous or  bony  arches.  Between  these  arches  are  slits  that 
communicate  with  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  through  which 
the  water  is  forced.  As  the  water  passes  over  the  gills,  the 
fine  blood-vessels  lying  in  the  surface  of  the  gill  filaments 
absorb  the  free  oxygen  in  it.  This  is  the  way  the  fish  breathes. 

Dissect  the  fish  and     , 

find  the  air-bladder,  a 
long,  white  sac  in  the 
body  cavity  next  to  the 
backbone.  This  organ 
is  found  in  most  fishes 
and  has  an  important 
function.  In  fish  like 
the  sunfish,  bass,  and 
pickerel,  it  serves  as  a 
floating  device.  The 
body  of  the  fish  is  slightly  heavier  than  the  water  and 
naturally  sinks.  By  expanding  this  bladder  the  fish  can  rise, 
and  vice  versa.  The  same  principle  is  applied  in  our  sub- 
marine boats.  Watch  a  fish  in  the  aquarium  as  it  rises  and 
sinks  without  moving  any  fins.  It  is  done  by  means  of  the 
air-bladder.  In  the  dogfish  and  other  fishes,  generally  of 
low  degree,  the  air-bladder  serves  partly  as  an  organ  of 
respiration.  It  is  more  or  less  cellular  and  lung-like,  and 
is  connected  with  the  mouth  so  that  the  fish  may  come  to 
the  surface  and  inhale  air. 

Fishes,  like  amphibians  and  reptiles,  are  cold-blooded  ani- 
mals. That  is,  their  blood  is  not,  as  in  the  birds  and  mam- 
mals, at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  medium  around  them. 


FIG.  37-    The  Gill  of  a  Fish. 


1 72  NATURE-STUDY 

Watch  the  fish  in  the  aquarium.  Place  some  food  in  the 
water  and  observe  them  feeding.  Watch  the  predaceous 
kinds  catch  water  insects,  etc.  Most  fishes  are  carnivorous, 
and  even  cannibalistic.  Among  them  the  general  rule  is 
that  the  bigger  swallows  the  smaller.  Aquatic  insects, 
worms,  crayfish,  etc.,  and  the  minute  animalcula  that  swarm 
in  the  water,  are  also  food  of  the  carnivorous  fish.  Some 
are  vegetarian  and  feed  on  aquatic  plants. 

In  cleaning  fish  in  the  spring  or  early  part  of  the  summer 
one  often  finds  masses  of  roe.  This  roe  is  the  unlaid  eggs  of 
the  fish.  Fish  lay  their  eggs  or  spawn  generally  in  the  spring, 
soon  after  the  ice  is  out  of  the  lakes  and  ponds.  At  this  time 
they  often  make  long  journeys  or  migrations  to  a  suitable 
place  for  the  spawning.  They  go  up  the  rivers  and  streams 
to  the  headwaters,  and  there  the  female  deposits  her  eggs. 
Some  fish  dig  in  the  sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  a  shal- 
low hollow  in  which  the  eggs  are  placed.  Sometimes  they 
are  covered  with  a  little  sand,  sometimes  they  are  loosely  laid 
in  the  water.  The  little  stickleback  makes  a  pretty  little 
nest  in  which  the  female  lays  her  eggs.  Some  fish  take  care 
of  the  eggs  until  they  are  hatched,  and  then  for  a  time  protect 
the  young.  But  many  kinds  pay  no  further  attention  to  the 
eggs  after  they  are  hatched.  The  young,  or  "fry,"  as  they 
are  called,  and  the  eggs  as  well,  are  much  attacked  by  fishes 
and  other  animals.  In  this  connection  read  to  the  children 
The  Story  of  the  Salmon,  in  "Science  Sketches,"  by  David 
Starr  Jordan,  a  very  delightful  and  sympathetic  study  of  the 
life  of  a  fish.  Show  the  boys  that  it  is  wrong  to  catch  or 
spear  fish  before  the  spawning  season  is  passed. 

Bring  out  the  economic  aspect  of  the  subject.  This  would 
be  well  done  in  connection  with  geography.  The  fishing 


FISHES— AQUARIA  173 

industries  of  the  salt  and  inland  waters,  the  principal  food 
fishes,  such  as  salmon,  mackerel,  cod,  and  herring  should  be 
studied.  Refer  also  to  the  artificial  rearing  of  fish  at  the 
state  and  national  hatcheries.  Briefly  take  up  methods  em- 
ployed, and  also  the  stocking  of  the  lakes  and  other  waters. 

A  few  strange  fish,  such  as  the  eel,  shark,  ray,  flying-fish, 
seahorse,  torpedo,  and  others,  would  be  interesting  illustra- 
tions of  curious  adaptations  to  special  modes  of  life. 

The  following  fresh-water  fish  are  common  and  should  be 
referred  to  in  this  study  of  fishes :  There  are  the  sunfish,  the 
gamy  little  fish  for  the  youthful  angler,  so  common  in  our 
ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers.  Some  of  them  are  beauties,  as, 
for  example,  the  "  pumpkin  seed."  Another  fish,  in  similar 
places  and  affording  similar  sport,  is  the  common  perch. 
For  the  more  mature  sportsman  the  black  bass  are  more 
worthy  to  test  their  skill  at  angling.  These  also  abound  in 
our  lakes  and  streams.  Related  to  the  sunfishes  and  bass 
are  the  speckled  croppies  of  the  lakes.  In  another  class 
belong  the  ferocious  and  large-mouthed  pike,  pickerel,  and 
muskalonge  of  the  lakes  and  rivers.  These  are  well  pro- 
vided with  teeth.  They  are  very  predaceous  and  attack  any 
moving  object  in  the  water,  and  are  therefore  usually  caught 
with  the  trolling  hook.  They  are  very  destructive  of  other 
fish,  and  make  gamy  catches.  Another  famous  order  of 
fishes  is  that  of  the  salmon  and  trout.  On  account  of 
their  vigorous  fighting  qualities  salmon  are  considered  ex- 
cellent game,  and  trout  catching  is  a  test  of  nimbleness  and 
skill  with  the  fly.  Both  kinds  are  among  the  best  food  fish, 
as  the  flesh  is  excellent  and  the  bones  are  not  troublesome. 
Another  order  includes  the  suckers  and  minnows.  Suckers 
generally  have  small  tube-like  mouths  adapted  for  sucking 


174  NATURE-STUDY 

in  food.  The  red -horse  and  the  buffalo  of  our  rivers,  and 
the  common  sucker  of  the  lakes  are  easy  sport,  and  though 
not  very  good  for  food,  are  considerably  caught  for  this 
purpose.  Most  people  think  that  minnow  means  a  young 
fish  of  any  kind.  That  is  not  the  case.  Minnows  are  gen- 
erally small,  it  is  true,  but  they  may  be  old.  There  are 
some  minnows  several  feet  in  length.  There  are  other  small 
fish,  full-grown,  however,  that  are  not  minnows,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  little  darters  of  the  streams.  Minnows  are  lively 
little  fish,  preyed  upon  by  larger  ones,  and  much  used  for 
bait  by  fishermen.  Allied  to  the  suckers  is  the  vegetarian 
German  carp,  introduced  from  Europe  into  our  muddy  ponds 
and  lakes,  and  now  so  numerous  as  to  be  almost  a  pest.  This 
is  a  fairly  good  food  fish.  The  goldfish  is  a  species  of  carp 
originally  from  China.  A  very  interesting  little  fish,  espe- 
cially for  the  aquarium,  is  the  stickleback  found  in  streams. 
The  male  makes  nests  for  the  female  to  deposit  her  eggs  in. 
Every  boy  will  know  the  common  bullhead  of  the  lakes  and 
rivers.  This  is  a  sluggish,  scaleless,  slimy  fish  of  rather 
nocturnal  habits,  and  will  therefore  bite  well  after  dark. 
It  has  a  number  of  flexible  feelers,  or  barbs,  around  its 
mouth,  with  which  to  explore  its  way  and  perhaps  find  its 
food.  These  feelers  do  not  sting.  Catfish  anjd  bullheads  do 
sting  or  prick  with  the  spines  on  their  back  and  pectoral 
fins.  The  latter  fins  can  be  firmly  locked  so  as  to  stand 
out  straight  from  the  body,  and  so  the  fish  is  disagreeable 
to  handle.  Other  interesting  fish  found  in  fresh  waters  and 
worthy  of  study  are  the  dog-fish,  the  garpikes,  the  sturgeons, 
and  eels. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
TYPICAL    INSECTS 

THE  abundance  of  insects,  their  variety  of  form,  beautiful 
colors,  ingenious  ways,  remarkable  adaptations  to  their  mode 
of  life,  and  wonderful  transformations  make  them  excellent 
material  for  nature-study.  They  are  easily  found,  collected, 
and  kept  alive  in  cages.  There  is  no  excuse  for  not  illus- 
trating these  lessons  with  abundant  specimens.  Outdoor 
observations  can  easily  be  made  by  the  pupils  individually, 
and  field  lessons  with  the  whole  class  can  be  successfully 
conducted. 

Children  are  over-cautioned  against  insects,  so  that  they 
finally  come  to  have  a  dread  for  them  generally.  This  spoils 
much  of  the  pleasure  they  might  otherwise  enjoy  at  the  sight 
of  insects  and  their  many  interesting  devices.  It  would  be 
a  kindness  to  children  to  teach  them  that  this  fear  is  un- 
necessary. Much  nonsense  has  been  told  and  written  about 
being  bitten  and  stung  by  insects  with  terrible  results.  In 
our  country,  flies,  mosquitoes,  fleas,  lice,  bedbugs,  ticks, 
gnats,  bees,  and  hornets  are  the  most  annoying  or  dangerous 
insects.  As  for  spiders,  though  not  true  insects,  they  may  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  They  are,  as  a  class,  harm- 
less, only  the  larger  running  spiders  and  the  tarantula  causing 
painful,  though  not  fatal,  poisoning. 

The  great  economic  importance  of  insects,  their  rapid 

175 


176  NATURE-STUDY 

rate  of  multiplication,  and  their  vast  power  for  harm  and 
for  good,  should  be  studied  in  nature-study.  The  children 
should  learn  to  distinguish  the  most  common  beneficial  and 
harmful  insects,  note  their  habits,  and  learn  the  methods  of 
fighting  them  if  injurious. 

Teacher  and  pupils  should  go  out  and  collect  insects  for 
study  in  the  school-room,  and  should  observe  their  habits  out- 
doors. Insects  may  be  found  in  various  places  according  to 
their  food  and  life  habits.  Flower-loving  insects  are  found 
in  the  garden,  in  the  clover  field,  on  the  wayside  flowers, 
and  in  the  meadows.  Flowers  attract  the  nectar-sipping 
insects,  such  as  butterflies,  moths,  bees,  and  bumble-bees. 
The  vegetable  garden  will  show  grubs,  cutworms,  beetles, 
and  bugs  that  feed  upon  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  the 
planted  crops.  In  the  orchard  we  find  leaf-eating  cater- 
pillars, bark-borers,  plant  lice,  scale  insects,  bugs,  fruit- 
destroying  insects:  and  in  the  flowering  time  hosts  of  bees 
and  other  nectar-loving  insects.  Many  insects,  such  as 
ground  beetles,  ants,  cockroaches,  crickets,  etc.,  may  be  found 
under  stones,  logs,  boards,  and  under  the  bark  of  decaying 
stumps  and  logs.  Locusts,  grasshoppers,  and  crickets 
swarm  in  grassy  meadows  and  pastures. 

A  walk  along  the  country  road  will  show  us  swallow-tailed 
butterflies,  milkweed,  cabbage,  roadside,  red  admiral,  fri- 
tillary,  mourning-cloak,  and  other  butterflies  flitting  over 
the  wayside  flowers;  moths  of  various  kinds  will  flutter  up 
from  the  grass  as  we  disturb  them,  or,  toward  dusk,  we  may 
find  them  probing  the  deep-cupped  flowers  with  their  long 
probosces.  Locusts  and  crickets  are  chirping  in  the  grass  or 
adjoining  fields.  Here  we  see  the  orb  spider  spinning  its 
beautiful  web  in  the  fence  corner,  and  running  spiders  in 


TYPICAL   INSECTS  177 

search  of  their  prey.  The  bees  are  busily  gathering  both 
nectar  and  pollen,  and  are  dusty  as  millers  with  trr?  golden 
pollen  grains  which  they  brush  off  against  other  flowers, 
thereby  effecting  a  very  essential  process,  that  of  pollination, 
which  is  necessary  for  seed  formation.  Bumble-bees  are 
drowsily  humming  past  or  are  half-buried  in  the  depths  of 
some  flower's  corolla.  Here,  perhaps,  in  a  hole  in  the  bluff 
along  the  roadside,  or  in  a  tree,  we  find  the  paper  nest  of 
the  yellow  jacket  or  hornet,  which  we  had  better  let  alone. 
In  the  grass  and  along  the  dusty  road, -we  see  the  active  and 
nimble  tiger-beetles  and  other  predaceous  beetles,  running 
about  looking  for  some  smaller  insect  which  they  may  de- 
vour. In  the  footpaths  along  the  road  we  see  many  little 
ant-hills,  and  it  would  pay  us  to  pause  and  observe  the  little 
workers.  In  the  grass  we  may  find  a  large  mound  made  by 
the  larger  ants,  and  if  we  open  this  we  may  see  the  eggs  and 
cocoons  carried  hastily  away  by  the  frightened  workers.  In 
the  tall  elm  or  cotton  wood  trees  along  the  road,  we  hear  the 
cicada,  sounding  like  a  miniature  alarm  clock  running  down. 
We  are  lucky  if  we  find  the  insect. 

A  visit  to  the  pond  will  show  us  various  aquatic  insects. 
Flying  over  or  about  the  pond  are  the  gauzy  winged  dragon- 
flies,  mayflies,  damselflies,  and  stoneflies,  end  myriads  of 
mosquitoes.  Their  larval  stages  will  be  found  by  dredging 
with  a  net  on  the  muddy  bottom  of  the  pond.  By  lifting  up 
submerged  sticks,  leaves,  and  stones  we  find  water-tigers, 
caddisworms,  water-beetles,  etc.  By  dragging  the  dip-net 
along  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  along  water-plants  and  over 
submerged  sticks  and  stones,  turning  out  the  contents  and 
examining  the  mud,  we  shall  find  the  large  and  the  small 
electric-light  bugs,  the  predaceous  water-beetle,  the  water- 


178  NATURE-STUDY 

scorpion,  water-boatmen,  back  swimmers,  dragonfly  larvae, 
etc.  The  black,  shining  whirligig-beetles  spin  about  like 
beads  upon  the  water,  and  running  dry-shod  over  the  sur- 
face are  the  water-striders  and  some  spiders.  All  these 
pond  insects  may  be  kept  in  aquaria. 

In  the  forest  we  shall  find  leaf-eating  caterpillars  and  their 
moths.  Perhaps  we  shall  be  fortunate  enough  to  find  the 
beautiful  cecropia  and  the  luna  moths.  We  shall  find  inter- 


FIG.  38.  A  Likely  Place  for  Dragonfly  Larvae,  Water-Scorpions,  Electric- 
Light  Bugs,  Crayfish,  Frog's  Eggs,  etc.  Muskrat  House  at  End  of 
Pond. 

esting  homes  of  insects,  such  as  rolled-up  leaves,  wart-galls 
on  the  leaves,  willow  cones,  oak  galls,  etc.  Decaying  stumps 
and  logs  are  regular  hotels  for  such  insects  as  ants,  roaches, 
crickets,  and  beetles,  also  spiders,  centipedes,  millipedes, 
sow-bugs,  etc.  We  may  also  find  the  interesting  measuring 
caterpillars,  and  the  remarkable  walking-sticks. 

Nocturnal  insects  may  be  found  flitting  about  at  dusk, 
such  as  the  humming-bird  moths  and  other  moths;  or  they 
may  be  seen  around  the  street  lamps  in  swarms.  By  ex- 
amining the  ground  beneath  a  street  lamp  we  shall  find 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


179 


various  beetles,  moths,  and  other  insects.  At  certain  seasons 
there  are  great  swarms  of  beetles  flying  at  night,  often  filling 
the  globes  of  the  lanterns  with  quartfuls  of  insects.  In  the 
summer,  also,  the  large  water-bug,  called  the  electric-light 
bug,  comes  out  of  its  native  swamps  and  flies  around  the 
street  lights,  falling  dazed  and  sprawling  on  the  pavement. 


FIG.  39.    An  Old  Decaying  Stump  Harbors  Many  Insects. 

At  such  times  hundreds  of  excellent  specimens  of  these  large 
insects  may  be  collected  and  preserved  in  bulk  for  future 
use.  By  placing  a  lantern  on  the  lawn  we  can  attract  many 
night-flying  insects.  The  same  happens  if  we  leave  a  window 
open  in  a  lighted  room  at  night.  Fireflies,  of  course,  reveal 
themselves  by  their  own  lanterns. 

A  search  through  our  houses  from  cellar  to  attic  will  result 
in  a  catch  of  insects  and  related  animals  somewhat  as  follows : 
In  the  damp  cellar  we  find  cellar-bugs,  millipedes,  centipedes, 


i8o 


NATURE-STUDY 


FIG.  40.    Insect-Net. 


ground  spiders,  and  beetles.  In  the  attic  we  find  more 
spiders,  on  the  rafters  the  homes  of  the  mud-wasps  and  the 
paper-wasps.  In  the  clothes-press,  perhaps,  there  are  moths. 

Under  the  carpets  are  the  carpet- 
beetles.  Flies  and  mosquitoes  are 
hard  to  keep  out  of  the  house. 
Ants  invade  the  pantry.  All  these 
creatures  come  into  the  house  in 
spite  of  the  housewife's  care  and 
cleanliness.  But  if  she  is  not  so 
cleanly  there  may  be  cockroaches, 
fleas,  and  other  more  undesirable 
and  less  mentionable  insects. 
So  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  finding  and  collect- 
ing insects  for  nature-study.  For  this  purpose  the  pupils 
should  be  provided  with  nets.  The  older  pupils  can  make 
their  own.  An  insect-net  should  be  made  of  some  light  porous 
cloth,  such  as  muslin,  cheesecloth,  or  mosquito  bar,  made  in 
the  form  of>a  sac  about  ten  inches  in  diameter  and  about 
twice  as  long,  fastened  to  a  wire  loop  which  is  securely  at- 
tached to  a  stick  about  four  or  five  feet  long. 
The  dip-net  may  be  smaller  and  should  have 
a  finei  mesh.  It  is  emptied  by  turning  it  in- 
side out.  Aquatic  insects,  to  be  kept  alive, 
must  be  carried  in  water  in  pails  or  bottles. 
Cans,  paper  boxes,  and  bottles  serve  to  bring 
back  alive  land  insects  for  the  school-room 


TO  I 


Oooc: 


FIG.  41.    Cyanide 
Bottle. 


cages. 

But  if  the  insects  are  to  be  mounted,  they  are  immediately 
killed  by  placing  them  in  the  cyanide  bottle.  Each  pupil  in 
the  higher  grades  should  have  one  of  these.  Take  a  wide- 


TYPICAL   INSECTS  181 

mouthed  bottle,  like  a  vaseline  bottle,  and  place  some  lumps 
of  potassium  cyanide  in  it.  This  can  be  obtained  at  a  drug- 
store and  is  a  deadly  poison.  On  the  lumps  of  cyanide  pour 
a  paste  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  allow  this  to  set  or  harden. 
The  poison  will  give  off  fumes  all  the  time,  which  rise  through 
the  porous  plaster  and  kill  the  insects  in  the  bottle.  Label 
the  bottle  "Cyanide  Bottle— Poison." 
Keep  it  tightly  corked.  Leave  the 
insects  inside  long  enough  to  be  sure- 
ly dead.  Larger  insects,  like  but- 
terflies, etc.,  may  be  placed  under  a 
larger  vessel  with  an  open  cyanide  bot- 
tle, or  they  may  be  killed  with  ether 
soaked  in  some  cotton  under  a  glass. 
Gasoline  or  kerosene  poured  upon 
them  quickly  kills  them.  In  the  field,  FlG'42'  Mounted  Beetle" 
butterflies  may  be  quickly  killed  by  tightly  pinching  the  thorax 
for  a  short  time.  If  left  to  flutter  in  boxes  or  bottles  till  taken 
home,  they  are  liable  to  injure  their  wings  by  knocking  off 
the  beautiful  scales.  But,  if  killed  in  the  field,  they  may  be 
carried  home  uninjured  in  little  packets  or  envelopes. 

The  insects  collected  should  be  neatly  mounted.  This  may 
be  done  by  sticking  pins  through  them  after  they  are  killed, 
and  pinning  them  to  the  bottom  of  light  boxes.  Cigar  boxes 
do  very  nicely. 

The  insects  should  be  straightened  out  and  arranged 
naturally,  and  pinned  before  they  are  dry.  The  wings,  at 
least  those  on  one  side,  should  be  spread  out  so  as  to  display 
them.  This  applies  to  grasshoppers,  locusts,  beetles,  bugs 
etc.,  which  fold  their  wings  when  at  rest.  Moths  and  but- 
terflies should  be  especially  treated  before  mounting.  Their 


182  NATURE-STUDY 

wings  should  be  spread  out  and  pinned  or  fastened  in  this 
position  while  drying.  A  drying  board  may  be  made,  accord- 
ing to  the  figure,  and  the  insect  placed  in  the  groove  with  its 
wings  held  down  upon  the  side  boards  by  means  of  strips  of 
paper  pinned  down.  Or  they  may  be  simply  laid  upon  their 

backs  on  a  board,  and  the  wings 
spread  out  and  fastened  down. 
Very  small  insects,  eggs,  larvae, 
etc.,  should  be  glued  on  the  end 
of  a  strip  of  paper,  and  this 
pinned  in  the  box.  Do  not  crowd 
FIG.  43.  spreading  Board.  tne  specimens.  Arrange  them  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  relationships.  Place  the  locusts, 
grasshoppers,  and  crickets  together,  the  beetles  by  them- 
selves, etc.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  room  to  write  the 
names  of  the  insects  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  simply  num- 
ber them,  and  write  a  corresponding  list  of  names  upon  a 
slip  of  paper  pasted  on  the  inside  of  the  cover. 

It  is  better  not  to  encourage  primary  and  lower  interme- 
diate children  to  make  collections,  but  leave  this  to  older 
pupils,  more  interested  in  structure  and  classification. 
This  collection  should  be  made  not  merely  for  its  own 
sake,  but  in  order  to  learn  something  of  the  form,  relation- 
ships, and  habits  of  the  insects.  A  mere  collection  that 
does  not  represent  a  study  of  these  points  amounts  to  very 
little.  The  habits  of  the  insects  should  be  observed,  as  far 
as  possible,  before  they  are  caught  and  killed. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  collect  insects  of  certain  kinds  in  bulk, 
when  they  are  especially  abundant,  and  to  preserve  them  in 
alcohol  or  formalin  for  future  study.  Thus,  in  a  time  of 
great  abundance  of  locusts,  or  a  pest  of  boxelder-bugs,  or 


TYPICAL   INSECTS  183 

when  the  electric-light  bugs  and  ground-beetles  swarm 
around  the  street  lamps,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  gather  a 
large  quantity  of  these  insects,  which  may  be  extremely  use- 
ful for  study  in  years  when  the  supply  is  scarce. 

It  would  be  an  excellent  thing  for  the  teacher  to  make  a 
hobby  of  insect  study.  Let  her  take  up  some  group  like  the 
butterflies,  or  the  beetles,  and  collect  and  study  them.  In  time 
she  might  become  quite  an  authority  on  the  class  selected. 
Every  teacher  should  have  some  kind  of  insect  book  for  such 
work.  Comstock's  "Manual,"  Comstock's  "Insect  Life," 
Howard's  "Insect  Book,"  Kellogg's  "American  Insects," 
Folsom's  "Entomology,"  and  Holland's  "Butterfly  Book" 
are  excellent. 

Insects  are  fit  subjects  for  study  in  any  grade  from  the 
kindergarten  up.  Naturally,  primary  children  are  more  inter- 
ested in  the  general  appearance,  color,  and  habits  of  insects. 
Let  them  study  the  most  common  and  noticeable  insects: 
Flies,  bees,  moths,  wasps,  butterflies,  locusts,  crickets,  June- 
beetles,  fireflies,  ants,  etc.  In  higher  grades  touch  more 
upon  points  of  structure.  Develop  the  structure  of  the 
typical  insect.  Note  structural  adaptations,  such  as  feet, 
wings,  and  mouth  parts,  modified  for  special  purposes.  Note 
mimicry  of  shape  and  color,  and  point  out  the  reason  there- 
for. Study  the  metamorphism  of  insects.  The  habits  should 
be  studied,  especially  where  productive  of  good  or  evil.  All 
these  things  will  make  the  study  of  insects  interesting.  Struct- 
ure studied  simply  by  itself  is  uninteresting. 

In  the  upper  grades,  though  also  to  some  extent  in  the 
lower,  insects  should  be  studied  comparatively,  and  simple 
relationships  made  out.  The  classification  should  be  un- 
technical.  Children  should  see  that  locusts,  grasshoppers, 


i84 


NATURE-STUDY 


and  crickets  are  closely  related,  and.  similarly,  the  bees, 
wasps,  and  ants.  They  should  be  able  to  tell  a  bug  from  a 
beetle,  a  butterfly  from  a  moth 

Type±  of  Inserts 

The  meaning  of  the  word  Insect  is  frequently  wrongly 
stretched  so  as  to  include  creatures  that  are  not  really  in- 


<^^>;?W/J    ,  -  ^-     \ 

I 


FIG.  44.    Young  and  Old  Locust 

sects.  Thus  spiders,  isopods,  and  centipedes  are  called 
"insects,"  and  even  so  very  different  an  animal  as  the  coral 
polyp  is  called  by  this  name. 

What  is  an  insect?  This  is  best  answered  by  studying 
some  typical  insect,  like  the  common  grasshopper  or  locust. 

The  body  is  divided  mto  three  principal  regions,  the  head, 
the  chest  or  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  The  abdomen  is 
composed  of  ring  segments,  and  so  is  the  thorax,  though  not 
so  well  seen.  By  bending  the  body  it  is  seen  to  be  jointed  at 
the  neck,  between  the  chest  and  abdomen,  and  also  between 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


185 


the  abdominal  segments.  This  jointedness  is  a  character- 
istic of  all  insects,  and  is  extended  also  to  the  feelers,  legs, 
and  mouth-parts. 

The  grasshopper  has  six  legs,  composed  of  several  stiff  seg- 
ments and  a  jointed  foot  terminated  by  minute  forked  claws 
that  act  like  pincers  and  are  used  for  grasping.  The  legs  of 
insects  are  attached  to  the  chest  re- 
gion, not  to  the  abdomen,  as  some- 
times seems  to  be  the  case.  In  the 
grasshopper  the  first  two  pairs  of 
legs  are  not  very  strong,  and  are 
used  for  crawling  and  holding  to  a 
support.  But  the  last  pair  are  es 
pecially  large  and  powerful,  and  are 
used  for  making  high  and  long 
leaps.  Observe  how  a  locust  uses 
his  legs. 

On  the  back  of  the  thorax,  from  the  second  and  third 
segments,  arise  the  two  pairs  of  wings,  which  the  grass- 
hopper folds  up  like  a  fan  when  not  in  use.  The  first 
pair  are  narrower  and  a  trifle  stiff er  than  the  second,  and 
protect  the  last  pair  somewhat  when  folded.  Unfold  the 
wings  and  examine  them.  Watch  a  grasshopper  fly.  In 
flying  the  wings  are  extended  at  the  sides  and  expanded. 
The  hind  wings  show  bright  colors  in  certain  species. 
Hold  an  expanded  wing  up  to  the  light,  and  see  that  it  has 
a  network  of  stiff  ribs  or  veins  running  through  the  more 
delicate  membrane.  These  act  as  a  framework  for  the 
wings.  The  veins  of  the  wings  of  insects  are  differently 
and  characteristically  arranged.  Though  grasshoppers 
are  generally  seen  to  fly  only  short  distances,  they  have 


FIG.  45.   Part  oi  Compound  Eye 
of  a  Dragon-fly. 

(Photomicrograph.) 


i86 


NATURE-STUDY 


the  power  of  extended   flight,  and    sometimes  make  long 
migrations. 

The  head  of  the  grasshopper  has  a  number  of  interesting 
organs.  There  are  enormous  compound  eyes  at  the  sides 
made  up  of  many  little  eyes,  or  "facets."  These  can  be 
readily  seen  with  a  magnifying  glass.  Besides  the  compound 

i (      eyes  there  are  three  little  simple 

eyes  arranged  in  a  triangle  at 
the  top  and  in  the  front  of  the 
head.  In  front  of  the  eyes  there 

•R  41  •      are   two  J°inted>   tapering  rods, 

^H  T^      called  antennae  or  feelers,  which 

are  sensitive  organs  by  which 
the  insect  can  feel  and  smell. 

The  mouth  is  a  very  compli- 
cated thing  in  most  insects.  In 
the  locust  it  consists  of  the  upper 
U'P  (seen  m  front),  and  behind 
it  a  pair  of  powerful  biting  jaws 
or  mandibles  (seen  on  the  sides). 
Then  follow  two  pairs  of  curious 
lobed  appendages,  called  maxillae,  which  serve  in  chewing 
and  holding  the  food,  and  which  have  a  pair  of  feelers.  The 
last  pair  of  maxillae  are  grown  together  in  the  grasshopper  and 
form  what  is  called  the  under  lip. 

The  body  and  legs  of  the  grasshopper  are  covered  with  a 
tough,  horny  substance,  which  serves  as  a  coat  of  mail 
against  the  stings  and  bites  of  other  insects,  and  against 
mechanical  injuries,  and  also  as  an  external  skeleton  to  give 
shape  to  the  body  and  to  permit  the  attachment  and  action 
of  the  internal  muscles.  This  coating  is  technically  called 


FIG.  46.    Mouth-parts  of  Locust. 

(Photomicrograph.) 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


187 


chitin.  It  is  the  hardened  epidermis  of  the  insect.  To  per- 
mit the  insect  knight  to  move  in  his  coat  of  mail,  it  is  made 
in  sections  united  by  flexible  bands  similar  to  the  jointed 
mail  of  old ;  and,  as  with  human  armor,  so  here  the  vulnerable 
spot  is  between  the  plates  at  the  flexible  membranes.  This 
is  where  a  wasp  would  insert  her  dagger. 

The  abdomen  of  the  grasshopper  is  divided  into  ten  ring 
segments,  that  fit  together  with 
flexible  joints.  On  each  side  of  a 
segment  is  a  small  pit  or  breath- 
ing pore.  These  pores  commu- 
nicate with  a  complete  system  of 
air-tubes  that  branch  throughout 
the  body,  even  into  the  veins  of 
the  wings.  They  are  the  lung? 
of  the  insect.  Observe  a  grass 
hopper  breathing.  Note  how  the 
abdomen  expands  and  contracts 
By  a  muscular  exertion  the  air  is 
expelled,  and  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  body-wall  causes  it 
to  expand  and  draw  in  the  air. 

The  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female  grasshopper  has  a 
forked  appearance,  on  account  of  the  projecting  lobes.  This 
arrangement  is  the  egg-placer,  or  ovipositor,  with  which  the 
female  bores  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  deposits  her  eggs  in 
the  burrow.  The  male's  abdomen  is  blunt  and  round. 

The  fact  that  some  insects,  like  the  cricket,  the  grasshopper, 
and  others,  possess  a  call  or  f  song"  argues  that  there  is  a 
receptive  organ  for  the  sound.  The  ears,  or  hearing  organs, 
of  some  insects  have  been  located.  The  ear  of  the  grass- 
hopper may  be  found  by  lifting  up  the  wings  and  looking  at 


FIG.  4* ,     Breathing  Pore  of  a 

Cockroach. 
("Photomicrograph. 


i88  NATURE-STUDY 

the  first  abdominal  segment.  Here  will  be  seen  a  shallow 
pit  covered  with  an  oval  membrane.  This  curiously  located 
organ  is  believed  to  be  the  ear. 

In  general,  this  description  of  the  grasshopper  is  typical 
of  all  insects.  As  a  class  they  have  bodies  divided  into  three 
sections,  with  abdomens  distinctly  segmented ;  they  have  three 
pairs  of  jointed  legs,  two  pairs  of  net-veined  wings,  jointed 
feelers,  compound  eyes,  complicated  mouth-parts,  breathing 
pores,  respiration  carried  on  in  a  system  of  tubes  that  spread 
throughout  the  body,  and  the  chitinous  coat  acting  as  an 
external  skeleton.  It  is  true  that  in  one  respect  or  other 
many  insects  do  not  conform  to  this  description.  Some  have 
no  wings,  some  have  lost  one  pair  only,  some  have  only  rudi- 
ments of  legs,  etc.  The  immature  forms  of  insects  also 
often  differ  widely  from  this  description. 

Insects  are  hatched  from  eggs.  The  mother  grasshopper 
lays  her  eggs  in  a  mass  in  a  barrow.  The  young  are  largely 
head,  but  the  resemblance  to  the  parents  is  unmistakable. 
The  young  grasshopper  looks  like  a  grasshopper  from  the 
beginning,  even  though  it  has  no  wings.  There  is  no  great 
transformation  in  passing  through  the  different  stages  to 
maturity,  and  the  adult  period  is  reached  when  the  wings 
are  put  on. 

As  the  insect  grows,  its  leathery  coat  becomes  too  small. 
It  is  then  cast  aside  or  moulted.  This  shedding  of  the  skin 
occurs  a  number  of  times  before  the  insect  is  full  grown. 
Then,  after  the  wings  appear,  no  more  moulting  takes  place. 
In  moulting,  a  rent  occurs  in  the  cuticle,  and  the  insect  slips 
or  wriggles  out  of  the  old  coat.  When  first  divested  thus,  the 
grasshopper  has  a  pale,  soft,  moist  skin.  At  this  period  the 
insect  is  especially  vulnerable.  Hence  it  generally  performs 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


189 


the  moulting  in  some  secluded  or  protected  place.  The  soft 
skin  allows  the  body  to  expand,  but  it  soon  hardens  into 
chitin  on  the  outside.  The  insect  then  proceeds  to  eat,  and 
grows  as  long  as  its  coat  will  stretch,  when  the  moulting  again 
takes  place. 

After  several  of  the  first  moults  fleshy  pads  begin  to  be 
noticeable  on  the  shoulders.  These  grow  with  each  succes- 
sive moult,  and  at 
the  last  they  are 
exposed  and  in- 
flated with  air  and 
blood,  and  spread 
out  into  wings.1 

Insects  are  clas- 
sified chiefly  ac- 
cording to  the 

structure   of   their  FlG'48- 

wings  and  mouth-parts.  Thus  the  locust,  grasshopper,  and 
cricket  belong  to  the  Orthoptera,  or  straight-winged  group,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  narrow  and  straight  fore-wings. 
There  are  about  nineteen  orders  of  insects,  only  six  or  seven 
of  which  need  be  referred  to  in  nature-study.  A  typical  insect 
of  each  of  these  orders,  except  the  one  already  described,  will 
be  now  considered: 

Dragon-flies  or  Darning-needles  are  .characterized  by  a  long 
slender  body,  i:wo  pairs  of  narrow,  net-veined  wings  always 
extended  horizontally  from  the  body,  and  enormous  com- 
pound eyes.  They  are  among  the  best  flyers,  flitting  nimbly 
in  search  of  insects  to  devour.  They  are  sometimes  called 
mosquito  hawks,  because  of  their  predatory  habits.  Often 

xFor  destructive  effects  of  the  locust,  see  pages  222-223. 


190 


NATURE-STUDY 


dragon-flies  are  beautifully  colored.  Their  eyes  are  finely 
iridescent,  their  wings  mottled  with  blue,  green,  black,  or 

Ijj  brown  spots  and  the  abdomen  simi- 
u  larly  colored.  The  mouth  of  the 
adult  dragon-fly  is  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  the  locust,  and  is  adapted 
for  biting  and  chewing,  the  mandibles 
being  especially  powerful. 

The  dragon-fly  is  useful  in  devour- 
ing flies,  mosquitoes,  etc.,  and,  in 
spite  of  popular  prejudice,  is  perfectly 
harmless,  without  poison  and  sting. 

The  development  of  the  young 
dragon-fly  is  very  interesting.  The 
female  dragon-fly  lays  her  eggs  on 
the  water  of  pools  and  ponds,  where 
they  hatch  into  rather  hideous  young, 
very  different  from  the  pretty  gauzy- 
winged  adult.  The  young  dragon- 
fly is  a  heavy,  flattened  creature,  brown 
or  gray,  looking  much  like  the  mud 
in  which  it  lives.  It  has  a  large  head, 
large  eyes,  and  an  enormous  underlip 
that  can  be  thrust  forward  to  grasp 
its  prey.  There  are  two  pairs  of 
from'Nymph°case.'  wings  Not  wing-pads  upon  the  back.  This  ugly 

Yet  Inflated.    Below,  a  Nymph.    creature     h  RO      doubt      ironically 

(After     Shipley    and     McBride     and  *  ' 

Packard.)  Deen     called     the    "nymph."      The 

nymphs  may  be  found  by  dragging  a  dip-net  along  the 
muddy  bottoms  of  ponds,  and  by  lifting  out  and  examining 
submerged  leaves,  sticks,  and  stones,  to  which  they  often  cling. 


FIG.  49.      Dragon-fly     Emerging 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


101 


The  lower  lip  (second  pair  of  maxillae)  is  generally  folded 
like  a  mask  over  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  but  it  can  be 
suddenly  shot  out  to  seize  mosquito  "wrigglers"  and  other 


1.  Whirling-beetle. 

2.  Diving-beetle. 

3.  Mosquito  Wrigglers. 

4.  Water-strider. 


FIG.  50.     Some  Aquatic  Insects. 

5.  Back-swimmer. 

6.  "  Electric-light "  Bug. 

7.  Long-bodied  Water-scorpion. 

8.  Short  Water-scorpion. 


9.  Water  Scavenger-beetle. 

10.  Water  Boatman. 

11.  Caddis-worm. 

12.  Dragon-fly  Larva. 


13.  Larva  of  Water-scavenger,  Water-tiger. 


aquatic  creatures.     With  a  pin  or  forceps,  pull  out  the  lip 
and  examine  it. 

During  its  growth  the  young  dragon-fly  moults  several 
times.  When  about  ready  for  the  final  moult,  the  insect  crawls 
out  of  the  water  upon  the  shore  or  on  some  projecting  plant, 
then  splits  its  nymph  skin  along  the  back,  and  emerges 


192  NATURE-STUDY 

an  adult  dragon-fly.  But  the  wings  are  not  yet  expanded. 
They  are  mere  fleshy  lumps  upon  the  back.  The  insect 
gradually  inflates  these  fleshy  masses  until  they  become  the 
beautiful,  transparent  wings.  After  waiting  a  short  time  for 
the  wings  to  stiffen,  the  insect  begins  its  swift,  aerial  life. 

Empty  nymph  cases  are 
common  sights  along 
ponds  and  lakes. 

This  interesting  emer- 
gence of  the  dragon-fly 
from  the  nymph  may  be 
observed  by  visiting  a 
pond  when  these  insects 
begin  to  be  abundant. 
Or,  better  still,  collect 
some  of  the  nymphs  about 
this  time  and  place  them 

FIG.  51.  "  H  alf  and  Half"  Wing  of  a  Hemipterous     in  the    aquarium,  and  yOU 
Insect  or  Bug.  ^^  ^   fortunate   enOUgh 

(Photomicrograph.) 

to  see  the  whole  process  in 

the  school -room.  This  development  of  the  dragon-fly  is 
called  direct,  and  is  not  marked  by  a  dormant  period. 

Damsel-flies  and  May-flies  have  a  similar  life  history. 

The  Electric-Light  Bug  or  Giant  Water-bug  represents 
another  order.  It  is  found  in  quiet  pools  and  swamps,  on  the 
muddy  bottom,  or  under  submerged  sticks  and  stones.  At 
night  it  often  leaves  the  water  and,  attracted  by  the  arc  lights 
of  the  streets,  it  may  often  be  found  in  large  numbers  under 
the  lamps. 

The  giant  water-bug  is  one  of  our  largest  insects.  It  is  about 
two  inches  in  length,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  study 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


193 


of  insect  anatomy.  Note  the  large  cross-folded  wings.  Lift 
up  one  of  the  front  pair.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  half  of 
the  wing  is  thick  and  hard;  the  rest,  thin  and  membranous. 
The  under  wings  are  thin  and  beautifully  nerved.  The  legs 
are  large  and  muscular.  The  hind  pairs  are  flattened  and 
fringed  so  as  to  serve  as 
paddles.  The  first  pair 
are  modified  into  sharp 
grasping  and  piercing 
arms.  This  bug  is  a  fierce, 
predatory  creature,  seizing 
and  killing  all  kinds  of 
aquatic  insects,  and  even 
larger  animals,  like  small 
fish,  etc.  It  has  a  sharp- 
jointed  beak,  which  it  gen- 
erally carries  folded  under 
its  head,  but  which  may 
be  thrust  into  its  prey.  A 
poisonous  fluid  is  also  ejected  through  it,  which  paralyzes 
small  animals  and  even  causes  painful  wounds  in  those  who 
handle  it  carelessly. 

During  the  youthful  stage  the  bug  has  no  wings,  but  other- 
wise resembles  the  adult,  except  in  size.  It  is  wholly  aquatic 
at  this  time,  but,  during  the  mating  season,  the  adults  leave 
the  water  and  swarm  about  at  night.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  water. 

To  most  people  the  term  "  bug  "  is  synonymous  with  the 
word  insect,  but  to  the  entomologist  the  word  means  a  distinct 
order  of  insects.  Bugs,  as  a  rule,  have  wings  like  the  electric- 
light  bug;  that  is,  the  outer  pair  are  half  hard  and  half  mem- 


FIG.  52.    Head  and  Beak  of  a  Bug. 

(Photomicrograph.) 


i94  NATURE-STUDY 

branous.  Hence  they  are  called  Hemiptera  ("  Half-and- 
half  "-winged).  Bugs  have  sucking  and  piercing  beaks, 
which  are  very  different  from  the  mouth-parts  of  the  locust. 
The  young  resemble  the  adults,  except  that  they  are  smaller 
and  have  no  wings.  Bugs  all  live  upon  liquid  food,  the 
blood  of  animals,  or  the  juices  of  plants. 

The  squash-bug,  box-elder  bug,  chinch-bug,  plant-lice,  and 


FIG.  53.    A  Cage  of  Luna-moths. 

the  common  louse  belong  to  the  Hemiptera,  and  the  cicada  is 
also  related  to  them.  Some  parasites,  like  the  louse,  have 
lost  their  wings  from  disuse.  Some  of  the  bugs,  like  the 
chinch-bug  and  plant-lice,  are  at  times  very  numerous,  and 
commit  much  damage  to  crops  and  other  vegetation. 

During  the  summer  one  of  the  most  common  butterflies  is 
the  common  White  Cabbage  Butterfly  seen  flitting  around 
our  gardens.  Perhaps  you  will  see  one  of  them  alighting  for 


TYPICAL  INSECTS  195 

a  moment  on  a  cabbage  or  nasturtium  leaf,  then  doing  the 
same  thing  on  another  leaf,  and  so  on.  This  is  probably  a 
female  laying  her  eggs.  Watch  the  insect  carefully,  and,  after 
noting  the  leaf  where  she  alights,  examine  for  a  minute  the 
yellowish  egg  placed  upright  on  the  surface. 
Watch  this  egg  for  a  few  days,  or  cut  off  the  leaf, 
and  placing  it  in  a  glass  of  water  observe  the 
egg.  It  will  soon  hatch  into  a  little  green  "worm" 
or,  more  properly,  a  caterpillar,  which  imme- 
diately begins  to  eat  of  the  leaf  on  which  it  was 
born.  This  caterpillar  is  the  baby  butterfly,  very 
different  indeed  from  the  beautiful  winged  form 
of  the  adult.  It  continues  to  feed  and  grow,  shed- 
ding its  skin  periodically  as  it  becomes  too  small.  FIG.  54.  insect 
When  full  grown  it  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  and 
is  covered  with  short,  soft  hairs.  The  caterpillar  is  divided 
into  segments,  but  without  any  marked  regional  distinction. 
On  the  sides  of  the  segments  may  be  seen  the  small  breathing 
pores. 

The  head  is  small  and  mostly  mouth,  which  is  provided 
with  a  pair  of  strong  mandibles  for  biting  and  chewing.  There 
are  no  compound  eyes,  only  several  small,  simple  eyelets  on 
each  side  of  the  head. 

Examine  the  under  side  of  the  body.  You  will  find.,  on  the 
first  three  segments  next  to  the  head  a  pair  of  short,  jointed 
legs  with  clawed  feet.  These  three  segments  correspond  to 
the  thorax  of  the  adult.  There  also  seem  to  be  legs  on  other 
segments  of  the  body;  but  closer  examination  will  show  that 
they  are  not  real  legs,  but  fleshy,  wart-like  outgrowths  of  the 
skin.  They  are  called  prolegs  and  are  used  for  clasping. 
At  the  end  of  the  abdomen  there  is  one  pair  especially  used  for 


196 


NATURE-STUDY 


clasping.     Watch  the  caterpillar  holding  on  to  the  edge  of 
the  leaf. 

Cabbage  caterpillars,  all  caterpillars  for  that  matter,  are 
very  voracious.     Their  capacity  can  be  judged  by  the  havoc 

a  few  can  effect  in  a 
£^        ^\^^      head  of  cabbage  in 
the  garden. 

The  cabbage  cat- 

J§  .       erpillar  moults  sev- 

^^f  _^^^^^        eral    times     before 
^^^^F  ^9  reaching    full    size, 

£•  and     at    the     final 

moult  it  seeks  a  se- 
cluded and  dry  spot, 
under  the  clapboard- 
ing  or  coping  of  a 
house,  or  under  a 
board  or  leaf.  It 
first  fastens  itself  to 
the  sheltering '  sup- 
port by  a  tuft  of  silk 
at  the  tail,  and  also 
makes  a  sling  of  silk 
around  the  waist. 
Then  a  remarkable  thing  takes  place.  The  old  caterpillar 
coat  splits  and  is  cast  off.  But  the  insect  no  longer  looks 
like  a  caterpillar.  It  is  now  a  pointed,  angular  case, 
called  a  chrysalis.  It  remains  in  this  form  in  a  quiescent 
condition  for  several  weeks,  in  the  summer.  In  the  fall  of 
the  year  it  may  continue  in  this  condition  longer,  and  pass 
the  winter  as  a  chrysalis.  It  is  apparently  dead  or  asleep. 


FIG.  55.    Eggs  and  Young  Caterpillar  of  Cabbage  Butterfly. 

(Photomicrograph.') 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


197 


That  it  is  alive  may  be  shown  by  gently  pressing  it  at  the 
thick  end,  when  the  other  end  will  wriggle.  Apparently  the 
insect  in  this  chrysalis  state  is 
not  growing  or  developing. 
Nevertheless,  all  this  time  won- 
derful transformations  are  going 
on  within  the  shell.  The  cater- 
pillar is  being  made  over  into  a 
butterfly.  Wings  are  developing. 
The  legs  become  longer,  the  body 
becomes  markedly  divided  into 
head,  chest,  and  abdomen,  the 
biting  mouth  of  the  caterpillar 
changes  into  the  sucking  tube  of 

FIG.  56.  Caterpillar  on  Milkweed  Leaf. 

the  butterfly,  the  simple  eyelets 

become  large  and  compound,  and  the  rudimentary  antennae 
become  long.  Colored  hairs  and  scales  develop  on  the  body 
and  wings.  These  are  the  principal  external  changes  in  the 
caterpillar  going  on  in  the  chrysalis.  In  the  cabbage  butter- 
fly it  takes  two  or  three  weeks  to  make  this 
change,  except  in  those  which  pass  the  winter 
in  this  condition.  At  the  right  time  the  chrys- 
alis bursts  and  the  winged  adult  butterfly 
comes  out,  at  first  with  soft  and  crumpled 
wings,  which,  however,  are  soon  inflated  and 
dried.  How  different  now  becomes  the  life 
of  the  aerial,  nectar-sipping  butterfly  from 
what  it  was  in  the  voracious,  leaf-eating,  crawling  caterpillar. 
Collect  some  nearly  grown  caterpillars  and  keep  them  in 
cages  in  the  school-room.  Feed  them  regularly  upon  fresh 
cabbage  leaves.  If  possible,  observe  the  moulting,  the  for- 


FIG.  57.    Getting 
Ready  to  Pupate. 


198 


NATURE-STUDY 


FIG.  58.  Chrysalis  of  Milk- 
weed Butterfly  —  Green 
and  Gold. 


mation  of  the  chrysalis,  and  the  emergence  from  it.  Observe 
the  way  the  caterpillar  cuts  away  the  edge  of  a  leaf.  See 
how  its  jaws  work.  Observe  the  way 
the  butterfly  uses  his  wings  in  flight  and 
rest.  Note  how  the  wings  are  held  up 

rover  the  back  and  folded  together  when 
at  rest.  Place  some  flowers  or  a  dish  of 
sweetened  water  in  the  cage,  and  see 
how  the  insect  uses  its  long  proboscis  or 
sucking  tube.  What  does  it  do  with 
the  tube  when  not  in  use  ? 

The  butterfly  passes  through  four  dis- 
tinct stages:  the  egg,  the  larva  or  cater- 
pillar, the  chrysalis  or  pupa,  and  the 
imago  or  the  adult.  This  kind  of  growth  is  called  indirect  de- 
velopment or,  perhaps  better,  complete 
metamorphism.  Compare  with  the  locust. 
Other  insects  besides  the  butterflies  have 
this  kind  of  development,  where  the  differ- 
ent stages  are  strikingly  different  from  each 
other,  such  as  the  fly,  beetle,  bee,  and  ant, 
for  example. 

Moths  and  butterflies  belong  to  the  order 
of  Lepidoptera  (Scale-winged),  so  called 
because  of  the  colored  scales  on  the  wings. 
These  scales  are  arranged  like  the  shingles 
on  a  roof.  The  fine  mealy  substance  that 
rubs  off  on  the  fingers  when  a  moth  or 
butterfly  is  handled  consists  of  these  scales. 

Moths  are  chiefly  nocturnal  insects,  and  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  butterflies  by  the  fact  that  they  hold  their 


FlG.  59.  Milkweed  or 
Monarch  Butterfly 
Just  Out  of  Chrysalis. 


TYPICAL   INSECTS 


199 


wings  flat  over  the  body  or  extended  laterally,  and  not  erect 
over  the  back  like  the  butterflies,  when  at  rest.  They  also 
have,  as  a  rule,  thicker  and  heavier  bodies  than  the  butterflies. 
They  have  thread-like  or  feathered  antennae,  while  butter- 
flies have  feelers  with  thickened 
or  even  knobby  ends.  Their 
food  is  like  the  butterfly's. 

Moth  -  caterpillars  generally 
spin  a  silken  case  or  cocoon 
around  themselves  before  going 
into  the  chrysalis  stage.  Collect 
some  of  the  black  and  brown 
woolly  Tiger -caterpillars  and 
rear  them  in  a  cage  till  they 
spin  their  cocoon.  The  silk 
comes  from  glands  within  the 
body  and  emerges  near  the 
mouth.  It  is  a  liquid  that  quick- 
ly hardens  on  exposure.  To  es- 
cape from  the  cocoon  when  the 
transformation  is  complete,  the 
moth  dissolves  the  gum  that 
binds  the  fibres  of  the  cocoon  together  and  forces  its  way  out. 

Examine  a  cocoon.  Open  it.  Within  you  will  find  the 
chrysalis  and  the  last  caterpillar  coat. 

There  are  many  harmful  moths:  tent-caterpillars,  clothes- 
moths,  army -worms,  cut -worms,  codling -moths,  gypsy- 
moths,  etc. 

The  Beetles  or  Coleoptera  (Sheath- winged)  represent 
another  great  order  of  insects.  A  good  typical  beetle  is  the 
common  June-" bug"  (beetle).  This  is  a  common  night- 


FIG.  60.     Scales  on  a  Moth's  Wing. 
(  Photomicrograph.) 


200  NATURE-STUDY 

flying  insect,  often  found  in  great  swarms  in  early  summer. 
It  has  a  short,  fat  body.  The  abdomen  is  covered  with 
two  stiff,  hard,  concave  wing  cases,  which  are  really  modi- 
fied wings,  the  first  pair.  They  serve  not  so  much  for  flight 
as  for  protection  in  general,  and  to  cover  the  delicate  under- 
wings.  The  hind  pair  of  wings  are  tucked  away  under  the 
wing  cases,  and  are  folded  first  lengthwise  and  then  crosswise. 


FIG.  61.    Cecropia-moth  Just  Out  of  Cocoon. 

It  is  the  outer  pair  of  hard  wings  that  gives  this  order  the  name 
Coleoptera. 

Beetles  have  mouths  much  like  those  of  locusts,  and  the 
mandibles  (jaws)  are  especially  strong  and  large.  They 
feed  on  a  great  variety  of  food.  Some  are  carnivorous,  and 
some  eat  various  parts  of  plants. 

The  young  stage  of  the  beetle  is  called  the  grub.  That  of 
the  June-beetle  is  known  as  the  Common  Grub-worm.  It  is 
the  fat,  white,  fleshy  larva,  the  kind  used  for  fishing,  found  in 


TYPICAL   INSECTS  201 

manure  piles  or  rich  soil.  This  caterpillar-like  larva,  with  a 
hard  head  and  chewing  mouth-parts,  a  soft,  segmented  body, 
with  feet  like  a  caterpillar, -but  no  prolegs,  lives  on  delicate 
roots  of  plants  or  on  decaying  organic  matter. 

Most  beetle-grubs  pass  into  pupae,  the  quiescent  stage, 
which  is  a  sort  of  chrysalis  in  which  the  wings  are  in  sep- 
arate pouches  and  the  legs  are  free.  The  June-beetle  spins 
no  cocoon,  but  hollows  a  cavity  in  the  ground,  which  it  lines 
with  an  excretion  that  makes  a  kind  of  shell  around  it.  In  the 
spring  and  early  summer  the  insects  emerge  from  their  pupal 


FIG.  62.    Caterpillar  Beginning  to  Spin  Cocoon,  and  Finished  Cocoon. 

A.     Old  Caterpillar  Coat.  B.     Chrysalis. 

cases  in  adult  form.  They  often  come  in  such  numbers  that 
they  do  considerable  harm  to  the  foliage  of  trees.  The  grubs 
also  of  certain  kinds  of  June-beetles  do  harm  in  the  gardens, 
by  eating  the  roots  of  plants.  In  the  daytime  the  June- 
beetles  hide,  sometimes  in  the  foliage  of  trees,  and  they  come 
out  at  night,  flying  about  in  a  blundering  way  seeking  for 
their  mates. 

Beetles  are  well  adapted  for  living  under  various  conditions. 
There  are  many  varied  forms,  and  they  number  about  100,000 
species.  Their  stout  mouth-parts  adapt  them  to  all  sorts  of 
food.  Many  are  quite  injurious.  Meal-worms  (beetle 
larvae)  spoil  flour  and  grain.  Potato-beetles  destroy  the 
foliage  of  potatoes.  Cucumber  beetles  eat  squash,  melon, 
and  cucumber  vines.  Rose-chafers  destroy  our  roses.  Wood 


202 


NATURE-STUDY 


FIG.  63.    A  Beetle. 


and  bark-boring  beetles  are  injurious  to  trees.  Carpet-beetles 
destroy  our  carpets.  Tiger-beetles  are  active  and  feed  upon 
other  insects,  and  so  does  the  little 
polka  dotted  ladybug.  The  large, 
black  water-beetle  also  feeds  on  other 
insects.  The  goldsmith's-beetle  is  a 
handsome  cousin  of  the  June-beetle. 
The  fire-fly  is  also  a  beetle. 

Flies,  Mosquitoes,  and  Crane-flies 
form  another  order,  the  Diptera  (Two- 
winged).  The  name  refers  to  the 
fact  that  these  insects  have  only  one 
pair  of  fully  developed  wings,  the 
hind  pair  having  become  rudimentary. 

The  House-fly  is  typical.  This  insect  lays  its  eggs  on 
decaying  manure  or  ex- 
posed meat,  etc.  Very 
soon  small,  white,  footless 
larvae  hatch  out,  which 
are  called  maggots,  and 
feed  upon  the  substance 
in  which  they  are  hatched. 
After  about  a  week  the 
maggots  shrink  into  bar- 
rel-shaped pupae  (corre- 
sponding to  the  butterfly 
chrysalis),  from  which 

e,  ,1  ,          ,  FIG.  64.    Head  and  Mouth-parts  of  a 

after    another    week    the  predacious  Beetle, 

adult  winged  flies  emerge.  (Photomicrograph.) 

The  fly  has  a  rather  large  head,  connected  by  a  very  flexible 
neck  to  the  hairy  thorax.     This  is  well  marked  off  from  the 


TYPICAL    INSECTS  203 

short  conical  abdomen.  It  has  six  stout  legs,  with  five- 
jointed  feet,  which  have  a  pair  of  pincer  claws  at  the  end  and 
a  pair  of  pads  underneath. 

These  pads  are  beset  with  hairs,  from  which  exudes  a  sticky 
substance  that  enables  a  fly  to  walk  upside  down  on  the  ceil- 
ing. The  gauzy  wings  are  not  folded  over  each  other,  but 


FIG.  65.    House-fly. 

( Photomicrograph.) 

are  laid  flat  against  the  back  and  reach  beyond  the  body. 
Examine  a  fly  closely  and  you  will  find  a  pair  of  small,  curved, 
rod-like  organs  in  the  place  where  the  second  pair  of  wings 
ought  to  be.  In  fact  this  is  all  that  is  left  of  the  second 
pair.  They  are  called  halteres  and  may  serve  to  rest 
the  front  wings  upon  while  soaring.  In  some  species  of  this 
group  the  second  pair  of  wings  is  represented  by  a  pair  of 


204  NATURE-STUDY 

slender  rods,  as  can  be  very  nicely  seen  in  the  long-legged 
crane-flies. 

The  large  compound  eyes  of  the  fly  are  very  prominent  and 
his  sight  is  good.  Try  to  catch  a  fly. 

The  mouth  is  very  complicated  in  structure  —  varying  in 
different  kinds  of  flies  and  the  other  genera  of  the  order. 
In  the  house-fly  the  mandibles  and  maxillae  are  aborted,  but 
the  lower  lip  is  a  curious,  extensible  organ,  called  a  tongue  or 
proboscis.  It  is  usually  folded  up  under  the  head,  but  when 
in  use  it  is  thrust  out  and  opens  up  into  two  lobes,  which  are 


FIG.  66.     Honey-bees:  Drone,  Queen,  and  Worker. 
(From  Benton.) 

rough,  like  a  file  or  rasp.  With  this  rough  tongue  the  fly  can 
scrape  off  bits  of  meat,  bread,  etc.,  and  lap  up  liquids.  Place 
a  little  dry  and  liquid  food  for  some  flies  to  eat,  and  observe 
the  use  they  make  of  the!  tongues. 

There  are  many  species  of  flies.  The  most  common  is  our 
house-fly,  but  there  are  meat-flies,  bluebottle-flies,  fruit- 
flies,  horse-flies,  deer-flies,  etc.  Some  of  these  have  mouth- 
parts  adapted  to  piercing  and  sucking,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
last  two. 

Adult  winged  insects  do  not  grow  and  moult  the  skin. 
Hence  the  small  flies  we  see  are  not  young  house-flies,  but 
belong  to  another,  smaller  species. 

The  house-fly  is  an  immigrant  from  Europe,  probably 


TYPICAL  INSECTS 


205 


brought  over  by  our  first  colonists.  It  is  a  great  nuisance 
about  the  house.  It  gets  into  our  food,  specks  up  everything, 
wakes  up  the  baby,  etc.  But  worse  than  this,  it  often  is  the 
carrier  of  disease  germs.  First  it  walks  in  infected  filth  and 
then  over  our  food,  infecting  that,  and  this  in  turn  transmits 
the  germs  to  us.  Clean  premises,  screens,  mosquito  bars,  and 
fly-paper  are  efficient  reme- 
dies against  the  house-fly. 

Flies  live  for  several 
months  and  then  most  of 
them  die  from  the  cold  of 
autumn,  or  from  a  disease 
caused  by  the  fly-fungus. 
Flies  attacked  by  this  fungus 
may  often  be  seen  on  the 
window-panes,  covered  and 
surrounded  with  a  cloudy 
substance.  A  few  flies  man- 
age to  live  or  hibernate 
through  the  winter,  to  come 
out  in  the  spring  and  renew 

the  race  ^IG'  ^'    ^ea(^  °f  Honey-bee. 

Bees,  Wasps,  and  Ants  constitute  another  great  and  very 
important  order,  the  Hymenoptera  (Membrane -winged.) 
The  bee  and  the  polistes-wasp  make  good  types  for  study.  If 
the  bee  is  chosen,  a  study  of  its  anatomy  will  reveal  the  follow- 
ing facts:  The  body  is  hairy,  often  colored  black  and  brown 
or  yellow  in  bands.  The  abdomen  is  joined  to  the  chest  by  a 
very  narrow,  " wasp-like"  waist.  The  six  legs  are  strong, 
and  well  adapted  for  climbing  and  clinging  on  flowers. 
The  first  joint  of  the  hind  foot  is  flattened  and  beset  with  hairs, 


2o6  NATURE-STUDY 

It  is  used  for  gathering  pollen,  and  the  tibia,  the  lowest  seg- 
ment of  the  same  leg,  is  used  as  a  basket  to  carry  the  pollen 
to  the  hive.  It  is  provided  with  long  curving  hairs  for  that 
purpose.  Bees  are  frequently  seen  in  the  field  or  coming 

home  to  the  hive,  with  their  pol- 
len baskets  filled  with  golden 
dust. 

The  wings  of  bees  are    very 
transparent,  with   but   compara- 
tively few  veins.     The  fore  and 
hind  wings  are  fastened. together 
by  means  of  minute  hooks  along 
their  adjacent  edges.     These  in- 
Fic.68.  sting  and  Poison  Bladder  of   terlock    and    make     the    wings 
Honey-bee.  more  rigid.     Bees   are  excellent 

( Photomicrograph.)  _ 

flyers. 

The  mouth-parts  are  very  complicated.  There  is  a  pair  of 
rather  weak  chewing  mandibles,  a  pair  of  sharp  maxillae  for 
piercing  flowers,  and  the  lower  lip  is  peculiarly  modified  into 
a  hairy,  hollow  tongue,  adapted  for  sucking  or  lapping  up  the 
nectar  of  flowers.  It  lies  between  the  second  pair  of  maxillae. 

The  bee,  as  is  well  known,  is  provided  with  a  formidable 
sting.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  ovipositor.  Connected 
with  the  sting  is  a  poison-gland  from  which  the  bee  injects 
into  the  wound  formic  acid,  which  causes  an  irritating  in- 
flammation. 

The  above  description  applies  to  the  worker-bee.  There 
are  two  other  forms,  the  queen  and  the  drone.  The  drones 
are  the  males,  and  can  be  distinguished  by  their  greater 
plumpness  and  hairiness.  The  queen  is  the  mother  of  the 
drones  and  of  the  workers,  and  has  a  body  which  is  longer 


TYPICAL  INSECTS       •  207 

and  more  pointed  than  the  others.  Workers  are  incom- 
pletely developed  females  and  are  unproductive. 

The  workers  do  all  the  work  of  the  hive  except  laying  the 
eggs.  They  make  the  honey,  gather  the  pollen,  build  the 
honey-comb,  nurse  the  young,  »etc.  The  drones  lead  a  life  of 
idleness,  and  their  only  function  in  the  colony  is  to-  fertilize 
the  queen  for  the  egg  laying.  There  is  generally  only  one 
queen  to  a  hive,  several  hundred  drones,  and  10,000  to 
40,000  workers. 

Bees  are  social  insects,  with  a  wonderfully  intelligent  com- 
munity life.  There  is  among  them  a  division  of  labor,  a  care- 
ful nursing  of  the  young,  a  remarkable  skill  in  the  building  of 
the  comb,  and  a  regulation  of  the  colony  life  that  amounts  to 
an  excellent  organization. 

The  active  life  of  the  hive  is  resumed  in  the  warm  days  of 
spring,  when  the  flowers  again  offer  their  fragrance,  pollen,  and 
nectar.  Then  the  queen  and  such  workers  as  have  withstood 
the  hardships  of  the  winter  bestir  themselves.  The  workers 
clean  the  hive,  and  gather  nectar  and  pollen.  The  queen 
lays  eggs  to  increase  the  population  of  the  hive.  She  may  lay 
several  thousand  per  day.  The  number  of  eggs,  however, 
varies  with  the  food  supply,  being  smaller  in  seasons  of 
scarcity  of  food.  The  eggs  are  placed  by  the  queen  in  special 
brood  cells,  which  are  generally  in  the  central  part  of  the  hive. 
Here  the  young  are  hatched  into  helpless  little  larvae,  which 
are  fed  and  cared  for  by  the  workers,  till  they  are  ready  to 
turn  into  pupae.  Then  the  workers  wall  them  up  in  the  cells, 
and  the  pupae  remain  dormant  for  a  period,  developing  into 
the  winged  form.  Most  of  them  turn  into  workers,  a  few  into 
drones,  and  still  fewer  into  queens.  The  larvae  in  the  queen 
cells  are  given  especially  rich  food. 


208 


NATURE-STUDY 


All  summer  long  the  honey  is  stored  up  in  the  combs, 
which  are  made  of  six-sided  cells  in  two  layers,  end  to  end. 
The  wax  is  an  excretion  sweated  out  of  the  pores  between  the 
abdominal  segments  of  the  workers.  This  they  scrape  off 
with  their  feet,  and  knead  and  work  into  comb  with  their  jaws. 

Honey  is  more  than 
the  nectar  gathered  from 
the  flowers.  The  bee 
takes  the  nectar  into  its 
honey-crop,  not  stomach, 
where,  though  it  does 
not  undergo  digestion,  it 
is  in  some  way  changed 
so  that  it  is  different  from 
the  nectar.  This  is  dis- 
gorged into  the  cells  of 
the  honey  combs,  and  the 
bee  adds  a  small  amount 
of  formic  acid  as  a  pre- 
servative. It  is  also  prob- 
able that  some  water  is 
removed  from  the  nectar  while  it  is  in  the  crop.  The  honey 
is  further  condensed  in  the  cells,  and  most  of  the  volatile  oils 
are  evaporated  from  it.  Then  the  cells  are  sealed  with  a  cap 
of  wax.  The  honey  generally  retains  some  of  the  aroma 
of  the  flowers  from  which  the  nectar  was  collected.  Thus 
we  can  distinguish  basswood,  clover,  or  buckwheat  honey. 
The  bees  confine  themselves  chiefly  to  the  principal  flowers 
out  at  different  times,  so  the  honey  is  pure  rather  than  mixed 
in  the  combs.  Among  the  flowers  visited  by  bees  for  pollen 
and  nectar  are  those  of  the  willow,  maple,  currant,  fruit  trees, 


FIG.  69.     Hornet's  Nest. 


TYPICAL  INSECTS 


209 


common  locust,  raspberry,  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  bass- 
wood,  sweet  clover,  buckwheat,  wild  aster,  and  goldenrod. 
Bees  range  several  miles  in  search  of  flowers  and  use  the 
pollen  extensively  for  food,  especially  for  the  brood.  They 
keep  it  stored  in  cells. 

Bees  also  collect  the  gummy  juice  that  exudes  from  some 
trees,  such  as  the  plum 
and  cherry,  This  sub- 
stance is  called  propolis, 
and  is  used  for  cementing 
up  the  cracks  of  the  hive. 

In  the  work  of  collect- 
ing pollen  and  nectar  the 
bees  perform  a  great  ser- 
vice to  plants.  They 
carry  pollen  from  one 
flower  to  another,  and 
thereby  bring  about  what 
is  called  cross-pollination, 
which  results  in  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  ovules  and 
the  formation  of  seed  and 
fruit.  An  apiary  in  con- 
nection with  an  orchard  is  a  very  practical  and  profitable 
arrangement. 

In  early  summer  when  things  are  going  well  in  the  hive, 
honey  is  abundant,  the  colony  has  increased  to  uncom- 
fortable size,  and  new  queens  are  nearly  ready  to  emerge  from 
their  cells,  the  old  queen  leaves  the  hive,  followed  by  a  large 
part  of  the  workers  in  search  of  a  new  home.  Generally 
she  first  alights  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  shrub,  and  the 


FIG.  70.     Brood  Comb  Inside  a  Hornet's  Nest. 
(The  capped  cells  contain  larvae.) 


2io  NATURE-STUDY 

workers  cling  to  .her  and  each  other  in  a  dense  cluster.  They 
may  now  be  shaken  into  an  empty  hive  and  thus  prevented 
from  wandering  off.  This  leaving  the  old  hive  is  called 
"swarming." 

Soon  after  the  old  queen  has  left  the  hive  the  new  queens 
hatch  out.  Often  the  first  out  will  sting  the  others  to  death 
in  their  cells  or  in  combat.  Sometimes  the  extra  queens 
swarm  away  with  some  followers.  Finally  one  queen  is  left 
mistress  of  the  hive.  Then  she  goes  out  with  the  drones  on  a 
wedding  trip,  but  soon  returns  to  the  hive  to  proceed  to  her 
duty  of  laying  eggs.  The  drones  are  mercilessly  killed  by  the 
workers  in  the  fall,  or  when  the  food  begins  to  be  scarce. 

During  the  winter  the  colony  lives  on  the  store  of  honey  in 
the  hive. 

Many  swarms  of  bees  leave  the  apiaries  and  take  up 
quarters  in  a  hollow  tree  or  a  rock  cavity.  Some  people  make 
it  a  practice  to  trace  these  homes  of  the  "wild"  bees,  which 
may  be  done  by  following  the  "bee  line"  or  direction  taken 
by  the  laden  bee  on  its  way  home.  Read  Burroughs'  "  An 
Idyl  of  the  Honey  Bee,"  which  tells  about  bee  hunting. 

The  interesting  life  in  the  colony  may  be  observed  by 
school  children  by  visiting  an  apiary  and  having  the  bee- 
keeper show  and  explain  things.  A  still  better  method  is 
to  have  an  observation  hive  with  glass  sides. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
INSECTS,    HARMFUL    AND    OTHERWISE 

FROM  a  human  point  of  view  insects  have  a  great  economic 
importance.  They  are  either  useful  or  injurious.  Many  are 
direct  pests  and  nuisances.  They  frighten  or  disgust  us; 
they  annoy  us,  like  the  flies;  or  they  bite  or  sting  us,  like  the 
gad-flies,  fleas,  mosquitoes,  and  "yellow  jackets." 

But  the  most  harmful  insects  are  injurious  to  man  only 
indirectly.  They  eat  his  crops,  spoil  his  fruit,  and  injure  his 
trees  and  flowers,  his  books,  furniture,  and  clothing.  They 
go  into  the  pantry  and  make  havoc  there.  The  bot-fly 
and  the  tsetse-fly  kill  his  'cattle.  The  losses  inflicted  by 
insects  in  these  various  ways  often  amount  to  millions  of 
dollars  yearly. 

Mosquitoes  belong  to  the  two-winged  group.  These  little 
insects  can  entirely  spoil  our  enjoyment  of  outdoor  life  at 
water  resorts,  in  the  woods,  or  even  on  the  city  veranda. 

The  natural  breeding  places  for  mosquitoes  are  swamps 
and  marshes,  though  rain  barrels,  puddles,  tin  cans,  etc.  will 
do.  The  female  lays  on  the  water,  a  boat -shaped  mass  of 
eggs,  which  floats  around  till  the  eggs  are  hatched.  The 
larvae  of  mosquitoes  are  commonly  known  as  "  wrigglers," 
and  are  frequently  seen  in  rain  barrels.  Wrigglers  breathe 
air  by  means  of  a  tubular  organ  near  the  posterior  end  of  their 
bodies.  When  at  rest  they  are  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 


212  NATURE-STUDY 

head  down,  with  the  breathing  tube  thrust  up  through  the 
surface-film  and  adhering  to  it.  If  they  are  suddenly  dis- 
turbed, they  quickly  fall  to  the  bottom. 

The  larva  changes  to  a  bent  form,  the  pupa,  which 
breathes  air  by  means  of  thoracic  spiracles.  It  now  has  wing 
pads.  This  pupa  finally  splits  open  on  the  back,  and  the 
winged  mosquito  appears,  using  the  old  pupal  case  as  a  rait 
until  its  wings  are  strong  enough  to  fly.  All  these  changes 


Male.  Female. 

FIG.  71.     Mosquito. 

take  place  in  a  few  days,  if  the  conditions  are  favorable,  and 
they  are  interesting  to  observe  in  the  school-room.  Keep  a 
number  of  larvae  in  a  dish  of  water  with  a  screen  over  it. 
Watch  frequently,  and  probably  you  will  see  the  mosquito 
emerge. 

The  male  mosquito  differs  in  appearance  from  the  female. 
He  has  long  feathery  antennae,  believed  to  be  organs  of  hear- 
ing, and  he  has  no  sting  or,  rather,  beak.  Therefore  he  does 
not  "  bite  "  as  does  the  female.  She  has  smaller  antennae,  and 
her  mouth-parts  are  a  collection  of  slender,  sharp,  piercing, 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE 


213 


lancing  and  sucking  organs.  They  are  modified  mandibles 
and  maxillae,  which  can  be  folded  together  into  a  sucking 
tube.  The  female  "  sings,"  but  the  male  is  silent. 

In  many  places  malaria  is  a  burden  to  the  people.  It  is 
now  believed  that  mosquitoes  carry  the  germs  of  the  disease, 
and  implant  them  in  man  when  they  bite.  It  is  not  the 
common  mosquito,  Culex,  that  is  responsible  for  this,  but 
the  genus  Anopheles.  This  genus  may  be  distinguished  from 


FIG.  72.     Development  of  a  Mosquito. 


Egg  mass,  enlarged  egg,  hatched  out  larva,  pupa,  and  adult  emerging  from  pupa  case. 
(After  Howard,  Miall,  etc.) 

the  common  mosquito  by  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  stand  upon 
its  head  when  at  rest,  while  the  common  form  stands  as  a 
well-behaved  mosquito  should,  with  the  body  parallel  to  the 
resting  surface. 

It  has  also  been  determined  that  the  mosquito  is  a  carrier 
of  yellow  fever.  After  biting  a  fever  patient  a  mosquito  bites 
a  healthy  person,  who  then  contracts  the  disease. 

These  facts  make  the  checking  of  the  development  of  the 
mosquito  a  very  important  problem.  Screens  on  doors  and 
windows  are  very  effective  in  keeping  them  out  of  the  house. 


2i4  NATURE-STUDY 

The  most  successful  way  to  exterminate  the  mosquito  is  to 
pour  a  little  kerosene  oil  upon  the  water  of  their  breeding 
places.  This  forms  a  thin  film  over  the  water  and  kills  eggs, 
larvae,  and  adults  that  come  in  touch  with  it.  This  method 
of  extermination  has  shown  good  results. 

Fish,  tadpoles,  and  aquatic  insects  destroy  many  wrigglers, 
and  the  adults  are  eaten  by  other  insects,  especially  dragon- 
flies,  by  birds  and  bats. 

The  Flea  is  another  very  troublesome  insect,  found  in  the 
homes  of  prince  and  pauper.  The  bite  of  this  little  tormentor 
is  more  painful,  and  in  many  people  leaves  more  lasting  and 
irritating  inflammation  than  that  of  the  mosquito.  There 
are  many  different  kinds  of  fleas,  but  the  most  common  in  this 
country  are  the  dog-flea  and  the  cat-flea.  The  human-flea, 
so  common  in  Europe  and  the  Orient,  is  as  yet  not  numerous 
here  except  locally. 

Fleas  are  related  to  flies.  They  have  lost  their  wings 
from  dis.use,  however,  and  they  have  no  compound  eyes,  only 
two  simple  ones.  They  have  a  sharp  beak  with  which  they 
suck  the  blood  of  animals.  They  are  very  hard  to  catch, 
as  they  are  very  nimble  and  excellent  jumpers.  They 
lay  their  eggs  in  dust  in  the  cracks  of  the  floor.  Cleanliness 
in  housekeeping  is  the  best  remedy  against  them.  Dogs  and 
cats  with  fleas  should  not  be  allowed  in  the  house. 

Similar  parasites  are  Lice  and  Bed-bugs,  belonging  to  the 
Bugs.  They  have  lost  their  wings  on  account  of  their  par- 
asitic, lazy  habits.  These  creatures  are  often  distributed  in 
schools,  in  the  cars,  at  moving  times,  and  on  the  street.  They 
are  very  irritating  pests  that  thrive  in  dirt  and  filth.  Per- 
sonal cleanliness  and  a  liberal  use  of  soap,  broom,  scrub- 
brush,  scalding,  and  treatment  by  gasoline  of  the  rooms  and 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  215 

furniture  infested  are  preventives  as  well  as  remedies  for 
them. 

Another  disgusting  household  insect  is  the  Cockroach,  of 
which  there  are  several  kinds.  The  small  kind  is  called  the 
Croton-bug  or  German  cockroach.  The  large,  black  kind  is 
the  Oriental  roach.  They  are  hard  to  get  rid  of.  They  are 
unpleasant  to  meet  with  in  the  night;  they  run  over  the  food 
in  the  pantry,  and  congregate  in  cracks  and  crevices  near 
sinks  and  drains.  The  most  effective  remedy  for  them  is 
probably  to  pour  gasoline  or  carbon  bisulphide  into  their  hid- 
ing places.  They  are  sometimes  caught  in  cockroach  traps. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  cracks  in  little  bundles,  which  the  female 
may  sometimes  be  seen  carrying  about  with  her. 

Clothes-moths  (several  species)  are  very  destructive  of 
wearing  apparel,  tapestry,  carpets,  etc.  Many  a  fine  fur 
garment,  or  cloth  suit,  has  been  ruined  while  being  stored 
during  the  summer  or  left  uncared  for  in  a  closet  or  trunk. 
Clothes-moths  have  been  associated  with  man  for  ages.  The 
Bible  speaks  of  treasures  that  moths  do  not  corrupt,  and  Job 
is  made  to  speak  of  "a  garment  that  is  moth  eaten." 

The  common  clothes-moth  is  a  small,  buff-colored  moth, 
about  half  an  inch  in  length.  In  the  summer  this  moth  lays 
her  eggs  upon  clothing,  and  the  larva  or  caterpillar  that 
hatches  out  of  the  egg  begins  to  eat  off  the  nap  of  the  cloth  or 
the  hairs  of  the  fur,  and  proceeds  to  make  itself  a  felt  case. 
This  it  carries  around  with  itself,  and  enlarges  when  too 
small  by  adding  to  the  end,  and  to  make  it  wider  puts  in 
gores.  Then  it  turns  around  in  the  case  and  does  the  same 
at  the  other  end.  The  case  is  further  lined  with  silk  spun 
by  the  larva  itself.  The  caterpillar  lives  on  the  material  of 
the  garment  or  the  dirt  that  may  be  on  it,  and  passes 


216  NATURE-STUDY 

the  chrysalis  stage  in  the  case.  Finally  the  winged  moth 
emerges. 

The  moths  themselves  are  harmless,  but  they  lay  the  eggs 
that  become  the  destructive  larvae.  The  moths  may  be 
prevented  from  laying  their  eggs  in  clothing  by  putting  it  in 
well  sealed  paper  packages,  or  in  tight  boxes  or  chests.  The 
insects,  that  is  the  adults,  do  not  like  the  odor  of  moth  balls 
and  camphor.  Hence  these  substances  are  usually  put  in  the 
chest  or  package  in  which  the  clothes  are  to  be  kept.  Cedar 
chests  are  also  avoided  by  moths.  All  these  precautions 
are  useless,  however,  if  eggs  have  already  been  laid  in  the 
garments  before  they  were  put  away.  Therefore  it  is  well  to 
brush  out  well  and  air  the  clothing  before  packing  it. 
Another  way  to  prevent  injury  from  moths  is  to  put  the 
furs,  etc.,  in  cold  storage;  if  any  eggs  are  in  them  they  will 
not  hatch. 

Our  gardens  suffer  from  several  kinds  of  insects.  Early 
in  the  growing  season  Cutworms  are  troublesome.  They 
cut  off  the  sweet-peas  and  other  tender  plants  near  the  ground, 
and  drag  the  plant  down  into  the  burrow  generally  close  to  the 
base  of  the  plant,  where,  if  we  dig,  we  can  generally  find  the 
culprit.  This  cutworm  is  a  fleshy,  gray,  black-striped  cater- 
pillar, which  crawls  about  at  night.  It  is  the  larva  of  a  moth. 
The  best  preventive  against  it  is  to  put  a  little  fence  or  girdle 
of  stiff  paper  or  boards  around  the  plant  or  the  beds.  Poi- 
soned bran  is  a  bait  they  will  eat.  Birds  and  toads  are 
good  friends  of  the  gardener  and  destroy  many  cutworms. 

Cucumbers  and  squashes  are  injured  by  the  Striped  Cucum- 
ber-beetle and  the  Squash-bug.  Paris  green  and  ashes  are  a 
remedy  against  them. 

A  very  injurious  butterfly  is  the  little  white  Cabbage  But- 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE 


217 


terfly,  seen  flitting  about  every  garden  from  early  spring  till 
late  in  fall.  The  eggs  are  placed  on  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
and  nasturtium  leaves.  The  caterpillars  are  very  voracious 
and  often  do  much  damage.  Pyrethrum  powder  (insect 
powder)  is  a  remedy.  This  butterfly  is  not  a  native  species, 
but  was  introduced  from  Europe  about  1860,  since  which 
time  it  has  multiplied  enormously, 
having  two  or  three  broods  a  year. 
A  small  ichneumon-fly  is  its  para- 
site, which  in  a  measure  acts  as  a 
check  to  it. 

Plant-lice  or  Aphides,  of  which 
there  are  many  species,  are  harmful 
to  many  plants.  They  are  minute 
insects,  and  their  permanent  loca- 
tion on  certain  plants  amounts 
almost  to  parasitism,  so  much  so 
that  most  of  them  have  no  wings. 
They  are  usually  named  after  the 
kind  of  plant  on  which  they  live: 
cherry  aphis,  peach  aphis,  corn  aphis,  hop  aphis,  etc.  They 
are  generally  crowded  together  in  great  numbers  on  the 
succulent  twigs  and  leaves  of  plants.  They  live  upon  the 
juices  of  the  plant,  which  they  suck  through  piercing  beaks. 

Some  aphides  are  green;  others,  black;  some,  red.  Some 
are  covered  with  a  woolly  coat.  Some  have  a  pair  of  little 
rods  at  the  rear  end  of  the  back.  These  aphides  excrete  a 
sweet  liquid,  which  often  drops  from  them  upon  the  leaves 
and  the  walks  beneath  the  trees.  This  liquid  is  called 
honey-dew,  and  is  relished  by  certain  ants,  which  may  often 
be  seen  in  summer  among  clusters  of  black  aphides  on  the 


FIG.  73.     Plant-lice. 


2i8  NATURE-STUDY 

lamb's-quarters  weed.  The  ants  climb  up  the  weeds  to  the 
colonies  of  aphides  to  lick  from  them  the  excreted  honey-dew. 
These  honey-dew  forming  plant-lice  are  sometimes  called  the 
ant's  cows.  Bees  and  other  insects  also  sometimes  drink 
this  liquid.  The  honey  made  from  this,  however,  has  an 
inferior  and  rank  quality. 

Plant-lice  can  weaken  or  even  kill  plants  by  robbing  them 
of  their  juices,  House-plants,  such  as  chrysanthemums,  are 
subject  to  the  attack  of  these  insects  and  are  much  injured. 
The  aphides  feed  chiefly  on  the  stems  and  leaves,  but  some  of 
them  attack  the  roots  of  plants.  Garden  asters  are  often 
killed  in  this  way.  The  phylloxera  is  such  an  aphis,  and  at 
one  time  almost  ruined  the  grape  industry  of  Europe. 

Kerosene  emulsion,  and  fumigation  with  tobacco  and  car- 
bon-bisulphide are  common  remedies.  Soap  and  sulphur 
solutions  are  also  used  to  destroy  plant-lice. 

For  study,  either  observe  the  colonies  on  different  plants 
outdoors,  or  bring  plants  or  parts  of  infested  plants  to  the 
school. 

Orchards  with  their  sweet-scented,  nectar-filled  flowers, 
tender  foliage,  juicy  bark,  and  luscious  fruit  always  attract 
many  injurious  insects.  The  plant-lice  referred  to  are  some- 
times very  troublesome  to  fruit  trees,  the  apple  being  especially 
attacked  at  the  roots. 

Related  to  the  plant-lice  are  the  Bark-lice  or  Scale  Insects, 
so  called  from  their  habit  of  clinging  closely  to  the  tender  bark 
of  trees  and  sucking  the  juices,  also  from  the  scale-like  appear- 
ance of  the  female  insects,  which  generally  are  covered  with  a 
rounded,  protecting  scale.  We  sometimes  find  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  palm  and  other  greenhouse  plants  white,  flaky 
spots,  which  on  close  examination  are  seen  to  be  insects  called 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  219 

mealy  bugs,  a  species  of  scale.  On  many  fruit  and  other 
trees  there  often  form  dense  incrustations  of  scale  insects  that 
sometimes  kill  the  trees.  The  apple-bark  louse  is  such  a  one. 
The  San  Jose  scale,  that  affects  the  orange  and  many  other 
fruit  trees,  has  done  a  vast  amount  of  damage.  The  best 
remedy  for  such  insects  is  spraying  with  emulsion.  Fumi- 
gation with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  also  used. 

Another  serious  menace  to  all  orchards  is  the  Bark  and 
Wood  Borers.  These  are  the  larvae  of  various  moths  and 
beetles,  that  gnaw  their  way  through  and  live  upon  the  tissues 
of  the  bark  and  wood  of  stems  and  roots.  Apple  and  other 
fruit  trees,  the  box-elder,  basswood,  and  many  other  trees  will 
show  upon  their  bark  many  holes.  These  were  mostly  made 
by  woodpeckers  digging  for  borers.  With  a  strong  knife 
or  other  tool  chip  the  bark  from  some  old  box-elder  tree, 
and  you  will  no  doubt  find  some  bark  borers  that  have  made 
tunnels  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  On  peach  and 
cherry  trees  there  may  be  fresh  masses  of  exuding  gum,  which 
indicates  the  presence  of  borers,  and  cutting  into  the  bark  will 
reveal  the  larvae.  The  best  remedy  we  have  against  these 
borers  is  perhaps  the  woodpeckers,  which  should  be  en- 
couraged in  every  orchard.  Wrapping  the  trees  is  some- 
times an  effective  remedy. 

The  Codling-moth  ravages  apple  orchards.  Soon  after 
the  petals  fall  from  the  flower  the  moth  lays  her  eggs  in  the 
calyx  of  the  flower  or,  rather,  young  fruit.  The  larva  that 
hatches  out  bores  its  way  into  the  core  of  the  apple.  The 
affected  apples  fall  early,  and  the  grub  bores  its  way  out  and 
generally  crawls  up  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  to  make  its  cocoon 
under  the  bark  scales.  A  second  brood  generally  affects  the 
orchard  again  later  in  the  summer  and  causes  many  apples 


220  NATURE-STUDY 

on  the  market  to  be  wormy.  Millions  of  dollars  worth  of 
fruit  are  lost  annually  through  this  insect.  Early  spraying 
with  poisons  will  kill  the  larvae.  Collecting  and  destroying 
the  apples  that  fall  early,  wrapping  straw,  etc.  around  the 

trunk  for  the  caterpillars 
to  make  their  cocoons  in, 
in  order  to  collect  and 
burn  them,  are  remedies. 
Birds  in  the  orchard  are 
a  great  aid. 

A  number  of  other 
caterpillars  injure  the 
foliage  of  orchard  and 
shade  trees.  The  Tent 
Caterpillar  forms  large, 
unsightly  webs  in  the 
twigs  of  the  trees.  These 
webs  are  the  homes  of 
several  hundred  caterpil- 
lars, that  were  hatched 
out  of  an  egg  mass  de- 
posited by  the  female 
moth  the  fall  before,  on 

FIG.  74.    Tent  of  Web-worms.  ,  i  •  ,-t 

the  twigs  near  the  tent. 

These  caterpillars  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  and  by 
the  defoliation  sometimes  injure  the  trees  materially,  besides 
disfiguring  them  badly.  They  eat  the  soft  parts  of  the 
leaf,  leaving  the  skeleton  of  ribs  and  veins.  They  gener- 
ally feed  during  the  early  morning  hours  and  again  toward 
evening,  probably  so  as  to  escape  the  attacks  of  other  in- 
sects and  of  birds.  During  most  of  the  day  they  hide  in 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  221 

the  tent,  which  is  a  good  protection  against  many  of  their 
enemies.  At  night  it  helps  to  protect  them  from  the 
cold,  and  it  also  sheds  rain.  As  the  caterpillars  crawl 
about  on  the  tree  they  spin  out  a  thread  of  silk  over  the 
path  they  take.  This  may  aid  them  in  finding  their  way 
back  to  the  tent,  and  also  enables  them  to  let  themselves 
down  from  the  branch  or  leaf  to  the  ground.  After  reach- 
ing maturity  the  caterpiller  crawls  or  spins  down  from  the 
tree,  and  seeking  shelter  under  sticks,  stones,  bark,  etc., 
goes  into  the  cocoon  or  pupa  state.  From  this  emerges  a 
dusky,  streaked  moth.  The  nests  should  be  removed  with 
the  colony  as  soon  as  noticed,  and  should  be  burned.  Birds 
are  useful  in  ridding  us  of  this  pest,  especially  the  winter 
resident  woodpeckers,  chicadees,  nuthatches,  etc.,  which  eat 
the  eggs.  The  cuckoo  and  oriole  destroy  many  of  the  cater- 
pillars in  summer.  Most  birds  do  not  like  the  hairiness  of 
the  common  tent  caterpillars  and  hence  leave  them  alone. 

The  forest  trees  are  affected  like  the  orchard  and  shade 
trees.  Large  tracts  of  forest  are  sometimes  defoliated  by 
tent  caterpillars,  canker-worms,  tussock-moths,  and  other 
leaf-eating  caterpillars.  Leaf  mining  or  eating  beetles  also 
do  much  harm  to  the  foliage.  The  borers  injure  the  bark  and 
wood  of  the  stem  and  roots.  Gall-forming  insects  attack 
many  forest  trees  and  injure  the  leaves  and  twigs.  In  fact,  it 
is  often  impossible  to  find  a  perfectly  sound  leaf  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer,  so  widespread  is  the  injury  done  by 
insects. 

The  farmer  has  some  very  bad  insect  enemies  to  contend 
with.  Potato-beetles,  chinch-bugs,  army-worms,  weevils,  and 
locusts  sometimes  cause  the  ruin  of  prosperous  farmers,  so 
that  such  an  insect  plague  becomes  a  national  calamity. 


222  NATURE-STUDY 

The  Locusts  or  Grasshoppers,  as  they  are  commonly 
called,  are  perhaps  the  most  serious  of  these  pests.  Ref- 
erences to  locust  plagues  are  found  in  ancient  history  and  the 
Bible.  The  locust  plague  in  Egypt  in  Bible  times  "covered 
the  whole  face  of  the  earth,  so  that  the  land  was  darkened; 
and  they  did  eat  every  herb  of  the  land,  and  all  the  fruit  of  the 
trees  which  the  hail  had  left;  and  there  remained  not  a  green 
thing  in  the  trees,  or  in  the  herbs  of  the  field,  through  all  the 
land  of  Egpyt."  The  same  has  happened  in  Kansas  and 
other  states  within  the  memory  of  man. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  locusts  in  this  country,  bat 
the  one  most  commonly  seen  in  the  North  is  the  common 
Red-legged  Locust,  with  red  legs  and  wings  no  longer  than  the 
body.  This  rarely  does  much  harm  to  crops.  It  is  a  com- 
mon insect  along  the  roadsides  and  in  the  meadows.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust  is  similar  to  this,  except  that  its 
wings  are  longer.  This  species  lives  chiefly  in  the  dry 
plateau  region  of  the  United  States,  but  occasionally  migrates 
to  the  agricultural  sections  farther  east.  There  it  sometimes 
does  immense  harm,  and  reduces  states  to  the  verge  of  starva- 
tion, as  in  Kansas  in  the  year  1874.  The  Clouded  Locust  is 
a  common  pasture  insect,  that  makes  a  snapping  sound  by 
rubbing  its  wings  together  as  it  flies.  The  Carolina  Locust  is 
a  common  gray  or  brown  locust,  seen  often  in  dusty  roads  or 
along  the  sandy  shores  of  lakes  and  rivers.  It  is  rather  large, 
and  is  hard  to  see  at  rest  because  its  color  resembles  the 
background.  Its  under  wings  have  a  bright  band  of  orange 
or  yellow,  which  is  displayed  in  flight.  In  the  Middle  South 
there  is  the  large  Bird  Locust,  measuring  over  two  inches  in 
length. 

I  remember  one  locust  year  in  Minnesota,  when  the  locusts 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  223 

settled  irregularly  on  the  country,  visiting  certain  regions  and 
leaving  others  unharmed.  They  ate  the  ripening  wheat  and 
other  grains;  they  attacked  the  corn  and  every  other  green 
plant;  they  congregated  in  swarms  along  the  roadsides,  and 
clustered  thickly  on  the  fences  at  night  or  under  piles  of 
straw  and  other  litter.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  one 
could  dig  almost  anywhere  along  the  roads  in  the  hard  soil 
and  unearth  their  egg  masses,  or  see  the  females  burrowing 
the  ground  to  deposit  their  eggs.  After  doing  much  harm 
the  locusts  suddenly,  and  with  almost  one  accord,  took  to  the 
wing  and  flew  away.  So  thick  were  they  in  the  air  that  on 
looking  up  one  saw  the  myriads  of  locusts  like  flakes  in  a 
snowstorm,  and  the  sun  was  actually  dimmed  by  their  great 
numbers.  Soon  after  news  came  of  great  masses  of  locust 
bodies  having  been  found  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  along  the 
coasts.  The  farmers  fervently  hoped  they  were  those  of  their 
late  enemies. 

Various  remedies  were  used  to  fight  the  plague,  but  most 
of  them  were  as  a  drop  in  the  bucket.  The  insects  were 
crushed  on  the  fences,  coaxed  into  rows  of  litter  which  were 
then  burned.  The  young  were  collected  along  the  roadsides 
by  pushing  a  small  tar-covered  cart  about  in  the  grass.  The 
young  locusts  jumped  into  the  tar  and  were  afterwards 
burned.  Fortunately  locusts,  like  other  creatures,  are  subject 
to  natural  enemies  and  diseases.  Many  kinds  of  birds  eat 
great  numbers  of  them.  Reptiles,  frogs  and  toads,  field  mice, 
shrews  and  moles  eat  them.  There  are  certain  insect 
parasites  that  kill  or  weaken  them.  On  many  locusts  you  may 
find  attached  to  the  wings  and  other  parts  of  the  bodies  small 
red  mites.  The  common  hair-worm  (hair  "snake")  is  an 
internal  parasite  of  locusts.  Certain  fungous  diseases  affect 


224  NATURE-STUDY 

locusts,  so  that  often  great  numbers  of  them  are  stricken.  The 
eggs  and  young  of  the  Mountain  Locusts  do  not  thrive  well 
in  the  lowlands  and  soon  die  out.  Thus,  there  are  natural 
checks  upon  these  rapacious  hosts. 

Many  other  kinds  of  insects  are  very  injurious  to  the 
farmer's  crops,  notably  the  army-worm,  chinch-bug,  potato- 
beetle,  cotton-boll  weevil,  etc. 

Not  only  the  farmer's  crops,  but  his  animals  as  well  suffer 
from  insects.  There  are  many  species  of  flies,  mosquitoes, 
gnats,  lice,  ticks,  mange  insects  etc.  that  irritate  and  injure 
his  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  Poultry  also  suffers  much  in 
the  same  way.  External  scabs  and  internal  bot-flies,  if 
neglected,  may  result  in  the  death  of  the  animals  so  affected. 
In  South  Africa  there  is  a  fly  called  the  Tsetse-fly  that  intro- 
duces with  its  bite  a  disease  germ  that  kills  cattle  and  even 
man. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
Agricultural  and  Experiment  Stations  of  various  states  have 
departments  of  entomology  for  the  study  of  harmful  insects 
and  ways  of  controlling  them. 

Insects  and  Flowers 

There  exists  a  vejy  intimate  relation  between  flowers  and 
insects.  A  few  minutes  spent  in  watching  a  flower-bed  or  a 
patch  of  wild  flowers  will  show  flies,  bees,  bumblebees,  moths, 
and  butterflies,  as  well  as  other  kinds  of  insects,  crawling  into 
or  over  the  flowers,  sipping  the  nectar,  or  eating  and  gathering 
the  pollen.  These  insects  are  doing  a  great  work  in  nature — 
carrying  pollen  from  the  stamens  to  the  pistils  of  the  flowers. 
This  is  called  pollination,  and  is  an  essential  thing  in  the  for- 
mation of  fruit  and  seed.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  if  a 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE 


225 


flower  be  pollinated,  not  with  its  own  pollen,  but  with  that 
of  some  other  flower  of  the  same  sort,  better  seed  will  be 
formed.  It  seems  to  be  the  aim  of  nature  to  bring  about 
cross-pollination,  as  this  is  called,  in  one  way  or  another. 
And  one  way  is  to  utilize  insects. 

It  may  be  set  down  as  a  general  rule  that  all  flowers  that 
have  bright  colors,  nec- 
tar, and  perfume  are  in- 
sect pollinated.  The 
colors  and  odors  attract 
the  insects,  and  they  like 
to  drink  the  nectar. 
The  pollen  also  is  eaten 
by  many  insects.  The 
insects  travelling  about 
from  flower  to  flower 
carry,  not  intentionally 
but  accidentally  rather, 
pollen  from  the  stamens 
of  one  flower  to  the  pistil 
of  another. 

Plants  have  developed  special  structures,  that  aid  materially 
in  cross-pollination  or  make  self-pollination  impossible. 

In  the  common  sage  the  anthers  are  hinged  at  the  middle  to 
their  filaments,  and  they  mature  before  the  stigma  of  the  same 
flower.  A  bee  trying  to  get  at  the  nectar  in  the  bottom  of  the 
flower  strikes  the  lower  part  of  the  lever  anther,  which  turns 
down  and  strikes  the  bee  on  the  back,  dusting  it  with  pollen. 
The  dusted  bee  then  goes  to  another,  perhaps  older  flower, 
with  withered  anthers  but  mature  and  opened  stigma.  The 
style  in  this  flower  is  elongated,  and  the  stigma  held  right 


FIG.  75-    Butterflies  and  Bumblebees  Like  Clover 
Blossoms. 


226  NATURE-STUDY 

in  the  way  of  the  bee  which,  in  attempting  to  go  past  it, 
brushes  off  some  pollen  against  the  stigma. 

When  a  bee  alights  on  a  sweet-pea  flower  it  rests  upon  the 
wings  and  keel  of  the  flower.  The  weight  of  the  bee  de- 
presses these  parts,  which  makes  the  stamens  and  style  pro- 
trude through  the  end  of  the  keel.  This  dusts  the  bee  with 


FIG.  76.    Sphinx-moth. 

pollen,  and  in  the  next  flower  this  pollen  is  rubbed  off  on  the 
stigma. 

The  primrose  illustrates  another  device  for  cross-pollina- 
tion. Some  of  the  plants  have  flowers  with  short  stamen  and 
long  style,  and  others  just  the  reverse.  Insects  visiting  these 
flowers  transfer  the  pollen  of  the  short  stamen  to  the  short 
style,  and  from  the  long  stamen  to  the  long  style. 

The  lady's-slipper  is  a  remarkable  case.  The  bee  enters 
by  the  incurving  fold  of  the  slipper.  It  cannot  get  out  again 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  227 

this  way,  however,  but  must  leave  the  flower  by  one  of  two 
openings  near  its  base.  In  doing  so  it  rubs  against  a  pollen- 
mass,  which  adheres  to  the  insect's  head  or  shoulder.  When 
the  bee  tries  to  get  out  of  another  flower  it  rubs  off  the  pollen- 
mass  against  the  stigma,  and  in  passing  on  takes  along 
another  pollen  mass. 

In  many  plants  self-pollination  is  impossible,  because  the 
stamens  and  pistils  are  in  different  flowers.  This  is  the  case 
in  the  begonia,  in  the  pumpkin,  and  many  others. 

Some  plants  are  so  dependent  upon  insects  that  but  for 
them  little  or  no  seed  would  be  formed.  The  common  red 
clover,  generally  pollinated  by  bumblebees,  produces  seed 
only  in  small  quantity  if  bumblebees  are  not  about. 

Parasitic  Insects 

Insects  have  many  enemies  and  endure  many  hardships. 
The  rain  and  the  cold  kill  great  numbers,  and  moles,  shrews, 
bats,  birds,  frogs,  toads,  fish,  etc.  eat  them.  They  are  also 
subject  to  disease.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  spread 
contagion  artificially  among  chinch-bugs  and  locusts,  in  order 
to  destroy  them.  Flies  die  from  a  fungous  disease.  Insects 
prey  upon  each  other.  There  are  predaceous  insects  like 
the  dragon-fly,  tiger-beetle,  etc.,  that  kill  and  eat  many  of  their 
fellows.  Some  insects  destroy  the  lives  of  others  by  parasiti- 
cally  feeding  upon  or  within  them.  All  these  checks  upon 
multiplication  are  welcomed  by  man,  providing  they  do  not 
affect  our  beneficial  insects.  And  we  consider  insects  useful 
if  they  help  us  to  get  rid  of  the  more  harmful  kinds. 

The  little  polka-dotted  red  or  orange  Ladybug  is  a  very 
useful  beetle  because  it  destroys  great  numbers  of  plant-lice, 
scale  insects,  etc.  It  should  be  protected.  One  kind  of  lady- 


228  NATURE-STUDY 

bug  has  been  introduced  into  this  country  to  help  fight  the 
scale  and  other  insects  which  injure  the  fruit  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  injurious  cotton-boll  weevil  has  an  enemy  in  the  form 
of  a  certain  species  of  ant. 

Ichneumon-flies  are  interesting  and  beneficial  insects. 
One  form,  the  Thalessa,  is  a  wasp-like  insect,  with  a  long 
slender  body  terminating  in  a  very  long  thread-like  ovipositor. 
By  means  of  this  instrument  the  female  penetrates  the  bark 
of  trees  to  the  burrows  of  larvae  of  the  borers,  and  inserts  her 
eggs  in  the  bodies  of  these  insects.  The  eggs  hatch  out  and 
the  grubs  then  feed  upon  the  vitals  of  the  host.  In  time  the 
host  succumbs.  By  this  time  the  ichneumon  grubs  are  ready 
to  leave  or  to  pupate.  They  burrow  their  way  out  of  the 
host  and  pupate  in  the  borers'  burrow  or  tunnel,  from  which 
they  emerge  as  winged  insects.  There  are  other  kinds  of 
ichneumons  and  other  parasitic  insects,  particularly  the 
Microgasters  and  Chalcis-flies  and  the  Tachinid  and  Syrphus 
Flies,  which  attack  caterpillars  and  other  insects  by  laying 
their  eggs  in  them  to  hatch  out  there  and  destroy  them.  The 
large  Grape,  Cecropia,  Cynthia,  etc.,  Caterpillars  are  often 
thus  affected.  Generally  before  the  caterpillar  reaches  the 
pupal  stage  its  parasites  have  run  their  larval  course  and, 
boring  their  way  out  through  the  walls  of  the  sick  caterpillar, 
spin  their  cocoons  on  its  surface.  The  caterpillar  quickly 
dies  from  the  effects.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
mother  insect  seems  to  use  judgment  in  laying  her  eggs  in 
other  insects.  If  the  host  is  small  only  one  or  a  few  eggs 
are  laid  in  it.  If  large  then  a  greater  number,  according 
to  the  abundance  of  the  food  supply.  The  affected  cater- 
pillars sometimes  manage  to  live  until  they  form  the  chrys- 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  229 

alis,  but  they  do  not  develop  into  butterflies  or  moths.  The 
caterpillars  attacked  by  parasites  generally  are  restless,  and 
show  evidence  of  discomfort  or  pain.  Often  we  find  chrys- 
alises, of  the  cabbage  caterpillar,  for  example,  with  little 
holes,  or  punctures,  in  the  case.  They  had  parasites  which 
came  out  through  the  holes.  By  these  parasitic  insects 
many  injurious  caterpillars  are  kept  more  or  less  in  check. 
Biological  relations  in  nature  are  very  complex.  Each 
species  must  have  nourishment,  and  this  must  constitute 
some  other  form  of  life,  plant,  or  animal.  In  this  way  a  fair 
balance  is  kept  between  the  different  kinds  of  life,  one  acting 
as  a  check  upon  the  other.  Mr.  F.  S.  Mathews1  quotes  an 
appropriate  doggerel  to  express  this  idea  in  another  way: 

Little  fleas  have  lesser  fleas  upon  their  backs  to  bite  'em, 

And  these  fleas  have  lesser  fleas  ad  infinitum. 

Great  fleas  have  greater  fleas  upon  their  backs  to  go  on, 

And  these  fleas  have  greater  fleas,  and  greater  fleas,  and  so  on. 

Some  Good  or  Harmless  Insects 

The  honey-bee  has  already  been  described  on  page  205. 
Another  domesticated  insect,  which  is  always  interesting  to 
children,  is  the  Silk-moth.  Silk-worms  are  reared  artificially 
in  a  number  of  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  cater- 
pillars are  carefully  tended  and  fed  with  mulberry  leaves,  and 
when  they  have  reached  the  pupa  stage,  they  spin  around 
them  a  cocoon  of  a  fine  strong  fibre,  the  silk  which  we  use. 

The  fibre  is  derived  from  a  gland  in  the  body  of  the  cater- 
pillar, and  issues  from  a  spinneret  on  the  lower  side  near  the 
mouth  as  a  liquid,  which,  however,  solidifies  in  the  air. 

In  the  silk  culture  the  cocoons  are  collected  and  the  pupae 

1  "  Familiar  Life  in  Field  and  Forest." 


23o  NATURE-STUDY 

killed.  The  silk  fibre  is  then  unravelled  and  reeled  into 
skeins,  is  spun  into  thread,  then  woven  into  cloth,  and 
dyed  or  left  natural. 

This  is  a  profitable  subject  for  a  nature  lesson  in  connection 
with  geography,  when  a  silk-producing  country  is  being 
studied.  The  lesson  should  be  well  illustrated  with  silk, 
cloth,  thread,  floss,  pictures  of  the  insect  in  different  stages, 
and  if  possible  some  real  cocoons. 

Professor  V.  L.  Kellogg,  of  Leland  Stanford  University, 
California,  kindly  agrees  to  send  any  teacher  several  dozen 
eggs  of  the  Chinese  Silk-moth  for  five  cents.  Children  would 
be  delighted  to  watch  the  development  of  the  eggs  and  cater- 
pillars. Eggs  and  cocoons  may  also  be  got  from  Mrs.  Carrie 
Williams,  San  Diego,  CaL,  and  from  the  Division  of  Ento- 
mology, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 

Though  the  Ants  may  be  sometimes  troublesome  in  pan- 
tries and  on  the  lawns,  on  the  whole  we  generally  consider 
them  with  a  kindly  interest.  They  have  a  community  life 
similar  to  that  of  the  bees.  This  and  their  intelligent  ways  of 
managing  the  colony,  and  many  other  interesting  habits 
make  ants  an  entertaining  subject  of  study. 

There  are  queens,  males,  and  workers  in  the  colony.  Ants, 
like  the  bees,  belong  to  the  Hymenoptera  (Membrane- 
winged).  The  workers  have  no  wings,  but  the  queens  and 
males  do.  In  the  summer  one  may  often  see  the  winged  queens 
and  males  swarming,  generally  about  some  tree,  during  the 
mating.  After  the  mating  the  queen  returns  to  the  nest.  Often 
her  wings  are  then  pulled  off  by  the  workers  or  herself,  and  she 
settles  down  to  the  business  of  laying  eggs  to  increase  the 
population  of  the  colony.  The  winged  forms  may  often  be 
seen  in  disturbing  some  ant-hill,  or  overturning  a  stone  under 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  231 

which  there  is  a  colony,  or  opening  the  home  of  a  colony  that 
lives  in  a  rotten  log. 

The  homes  of  ants  do  not  show  the  skill  of  architecture 
that  is  manifested  by  the  bees.  The  earth  dwellers  gen- 
erally have  labyrinthine  subterranean  galleries,  tunnels,  and 
chambers,  and  those  that  live  in  logs  sometimes  com- 
pletely honeycomb  the  wood. 

When  an  ant-hill  is  broken  open  there  is  generally  great 
excitement  among  the  inhabitants.  They  rush  about  with 
small  white  bodies  in  their  mouths,  either  eggs  or  cocoons, 
which  they  are  endeavoring  to  carry  to  a  place  of  safety. 


FIG.  77.    Ant  Cage. 

The  eggs  are  very  small,  and  are  not  the  larger  white  bodies 
generally  considered  eggs.  These  are  the  cocoons. 

The  ways  of  ants  may  be  very  well  studied  in  the  school- 
room by  placing  a  lot  of  ants  and  cocoons  in  a  dish  covered 
with  a  pane  of  glass.  If  the  dish  is  not  opaque  wrap  it  in 
opaque  paper.  Lay  a  flat  stone,  a  chip,  or  piece  of  bark, 
slightly  raised,  in  the  dish.  The  ants  will  soon  collect  the 
cocoons  and  themselves  under  the  cover,  and  this  may  be 
removed  occasionally  and  the  progress  of  the  colony  ob- 
served. Feed  the  ants  with  sweetened  water,  succulent  herb- 
age and  fruit.  They  also  like  caterpillars  and  meat. 

A  convenient  ant  cage  or  formicarium  has  been  devised  by 
Professor  Comstock,  which  can  easily  be  made  and  modified 
to  suit  convenience.  It  is  made  by  taking  a  plank  about 
1 6  x  1 8  inches,  cutting  a  deep  trench  near  its  edge,  and 
making  a  moat  of  this  by  filling  it  with  water.  This  moat 


232  NATURE-STUDY 

is  to  keep  the  ants  in  the  cage.  Place  a  shallow  tin  tray 
about  10  x  10  inches  on  the  plank.  Lay  a  sheet  of  glass  in 
the  tray.  Then  lay  thin  strips  of  wood  or  glass,  a  little 
thicker  than  the  height  of  an  ant,  around  the  edge  of  the  sheet 
of  glass.  Fill  the  inner  space  with  fine  earth.  Then  lay  on 
top  of  this  another  sheet  of  glass  like  the  lower,  but  with  one 
corner  cut  off  (about  two  inches  on  each  side  of  the  corner). 
This  opening  will  allow  an  entrance  to  the  earth  within.  Then 
lay  a  corresponding  piece  of  heavy  paper  or,  better,  tin  on  this. 
Now  get  your  ants,  being  sure  to  get  also  a  queen,  and  co- 
coons, and  some  of  the  earth  in  which  the  nest  was  found. 
(The  queen  is  larger  than  the  rest,  has  a  thicker  abdomen, 
and  usually  wings.)  Place  these  on  top  of  the  cage,  re- 
moving the  excess  of  earth.  Leave  alone  a  day  or  so,  and 
the  ants  will  have  taken  up  quarters  within  the  cage.  By 
removing  the  cover,  the  galleries,  rooms,  young  and  old 
ants,  cocoons  and  eggs  may  be  seen.  Do  not  let  the  nest  get 
too  dry.  Pour  a  little  water  into  the  tray  occasionally.  Such 
a  colony  may  be  kept  a  long  time  if  properly  cared  for. 

Crickets  also  belong  to  the  interesting  and  harmless,  rather 
than  to  the  injurious,  class.  Occasionally,  when  they  collect 
in  too  great  numbers  in  a  house,  they  become  annoying,  and 
they  may  sometimes  do  a  little  harm  to  field  crops.  They 
are  especially  abundant  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer, 
when  they  may  be  found  sunning  themselves  in  the  meadows 
and  along  the  roadsides.  Here  also  they  are  laying  their  eggs. 
Crickets  are  preeminently  autumn  insects,  and  during  the 
day  and  the  night  the  rather  pleasant  sound  of  their  chirp- 
ing may  be  heard.  We  speak  of  the  cheerful  crickets.  Per- 
haps it  is  their  chirping  that  makes  us  feel  so.  Crickets  have 
always  had  a  popular  place  in  literature. 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  233 

Crickets  are  cousins  to  the  locusts  or  grasshoppers.  '  Gen- 
erally they  are  black.  They  resemble  locusts  somewhat  in 
shape,  but  their  wings  are  much  shorter,  the  hind  pair  being 
often  useless.  They  do  not  fly  much,  but  depend  on  jumping 
and  running  for  escape,  and  they  are  very  nimble. 

The  males  do  the  chirping  by  rubbing  the  edge  of  one  front 
wing  over  the  outer  surface  of  the  other.  On  each  outer 
wing  there  is  a 
ridge  with  tooth- 
like  projections. 
By  drawing  the 
other  wing  over 
this  rough  ridge  it 
is  made  to  vibrate, 
much  as  we  make 

Un       by      raw-       FlG  ?g      Male  Cricket  Below>    Female  Egg  Placer  Above. 

ing  a  card  over  a 

comb.  This  chirping  is  the  love  song  of  the  male.  Presum- 
ably there  are  female  ears  to  hear  it.  Cricket's  ears  are  not 
on  their  heads,  but  on  the  first  joint  of  their  forelegs  above  the 
foot.  Here  will  be  seen  a  little  oval  pit  with  a  membrane 
stretched  across.  The  spot  is  somewhat  transparent  and  is 
easily  found.  Catch  some  crickets  and  put  them  in  a  cage 
or  jar;  you  will  probably  hear  them  chirp,  and  by  approach- 
ing quietly  you  may  see  how  they  do  it.  They  make  good 
school-room  pets. 

The  female  cricket  has  a  long  slender  organ  at  the  end  of 
her  abdomen  which  is  the  ovipositor  or  egg  placer.  By 
means  of  it  she  can  penetrate  the  earth  and  lay  her  eggs  in 
the  soil. 

Another  cousin  to  the  locust  is  named  the  Green  Grass- 


234 


NATURE-STUDY 


hopper  to  distinguish  it  from  the  common  grasshopper  or 
locust.  This  resembles  a  cricket  or  a  locust  in  general  struct- 
ure. It  is  found  in  grass  and  in  the  trees,  hence  its  color  for 
the  sake  of  protection  is  green.  The  Meadow  Grasshopper 
is  a  common  kind.  It  is  long  and  slender,  with 
wings  that  extend  beyond  its  body.  It  has 
very  long  antennae,  and  a  pair  of  very  long 
jumping  legs.  This  kind  is  seen  m  the  tall 
grass  of  meadows,  clinging  to  the  blades  and 
stalks.  The  male  makes  a  chirping  noise  by 
FIG.  79.  Sounding  rubbing  the  wing  covers  upon  each  other, 
wing  of  cricket.  The  Katydid  is  another  kind  of  grasshopper, 

that  lives  in  the  trees,  and  in  the  quiet  watches  of  the  night 
argues  continuously,  "Katy  did,"  "Katy  didn't."  The 
sound  is  made  as  by  the  other  grasshoppers.  The  Katydid 
looks  somewhat  like  a  cricket  with  long,  broad  wings. 

On  hot  summer  days  we  often  hear  a  shrill,  trilling  sound 
emanating  from  the  tall 
trees,  a  sound  that  resem- 
bles a  miniature  snare-drum 
or  a  miniature  alarm-clock 
going  off  and  gradually  run- 
ning down.  This  sound  is 
made  by  the  Dog-day  Har- 
vest-fly or  Two-year  Cicada, 
or  perhaps  by  the  Seventeen- 
year  Cicada.  These  insects 
are  sometimes,  but  erroneously,  called  the  "Locust."  The 
cicada  is  related  to  the  Bugs  (Hemiptera). 

It  is  a  rather  large  insect,  nearly  two  inches  in  length,  with 
clear,  strongly  veined  wings.     It  has  a  broad,  triangular  head, 


FIG.  80. 


The  Ear  of  a  Cricket  on  the  Front 
Leg. 

( Photomicrograph.) 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE 


235 


FIG.  81.    Katydid. 


terminated  by  a  stout,  sharp  beak,  which  is  generally  folded 
under  the  head.  The  compound  eyes  are  prominent,  as  are 
also  the  three  ocelli. 

The  song  of  the  ci- 
cada is  produced  in  a 
pair  of  elaborate  drum- 
like  organs  on  the  under 
side  of  the  abdomen. 
Turn  the  insect  over 
and  a  pair  of  circular 
covers  will  be  seen  just 
behind  the  hind  legs. 
Lift  these  up  and  you 
will  see  a  cavity  under 
each.  Across  this  cavity  are  stretched  membranes  which 
are  made  to  vibrate  by  the  rapid  contraction  and  relaxation 
of  attached  muscles.  The  females  have 
no  such  sounding  apparatus  and  are 
therefore  silent. 

If  cicadas  are  found  that  have  dropped 
from  the  trees  they  should  be  brought  to 
the  school  alive  and  kept  in  cages.  Feed 
them  on  succulent  leaves. 

The  development  of  the  so-called 
seventeen-year  cicada  is  interesting  be- 
cause the  larvae  grow  very  slowly,  taking 
from  13  to  17  years  to  mature.  They 
live  in  the  ground,  feeding  upon  tender  roots.  The  two-year 
cicada  develops  in  two  or  three  years. 

Cicadas  have  been  famed  in  poetry  ever  since  the  times  of 
Homer. 


FIG.  82.    Cicada. 


236 


NATURE-STUDY 


Butterflies  and  Moths 

The  most  beautiful  of  the  insects  are  the  Butterflies.  These 
airy,  flitting,  little  beings  always  attract  and  cheer  the  eye. 
They  frequent  the  flower  gardens,  the  roadside  flowers,  and 
the  flowers  of  the  meadows  and  forest  borders. 

The  Cabbage  Butterfly  is  the  most  common  of  our  butter- 
flies. As  its  caterpillar  eats  cabbage  and  related  plants  and 
also  the  nasturtium,  it  is  considered  a  nox- 
ious insect.  It  is  seen  in  every  vegetable 
garden  and  in  fields  and  meadows.  The 
male  has  one  black  spot  on  each  fore  wing; 
the  female,  two. 

A  common  butterfly  similar  to  the  preced- 
ing, only  yellow,  is  the  Clouded  Sulphur  or 
Clover  Butterfly.  This  form  is  seen  often  in 
clover  fields  where  its  larva  feeds  on  the 
clover.  The  wings  are  black  bordered.  The 
fore  wings  have  each  a  black,  the  hind  an 
orange,  spot.  The  female  is  sometimes 
white. 

The  Mourning  Cloak  is  a  rather  common  butterfly  with 
dark-brown,  yellow-bordered  wings.  Its  black  spiny  cater- 
pillars feed  upon  the  leaves  of  willow  and  poplar.  Some  of 
these  butterflies  pass  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage,  and 
occasionally  on  very  mild  days  in  winter  or  early  spring  they 
may  be  seen  flying  about. 

The  Swallowtails,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  are 
among  the  handsomest  and  largest.  They  are  called  thus 
because  the  hind  wings  are  drawn  out  into  tapering  ends. 
They  frequently  visit  flower  gardens.  The  Red  Admiral  is 


FIG.  83.  Moulted  Skin 
of  Cicada. 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE 


237 


a  medium  sized  butterfly  with  purplish  wings,  the  front  pair 

bearing  a  conspicuous  orange  or  red  band  across  their  sur- 
face.    The  larva   feeds  upon 

hop  and  nettle. 

In   the   latter   part    of   the 

summer   the    Painted  Beauty 

is  commonly  found  on  the  as- 
ters and  other  fall  flowers.     It 

is  a  very  nimble    and  active 

butterfly.     The  upper  surface 

of  the  wings  is  blackish,  with 

orange  and  white  spots.     The 

under  side  of  the  wings  is  the 

finest,    being    marbled     with 

brown,  gray,  and  white,  with 

rose-colored  spots  on  the  front 

pair,  and  two  eye-like  spots  on 

the  hind  wings.  It  is  one  of  the  daintiest  and  most  beautiful 
of  our  butterflies.  It  measures  about  two 
inches  across  its  wing-tips.  This  butter- 
fly, like  some  others,  has  the  interesting 
habit  of  playing  dead  when  caught,  com- 
ing to  life  and  making  off  quickly  when 
there  is  a  chance  to  escape. 

Another  common  butterfly  is  the  Violet 
Tip,  so  called  from  the  violet  border  of 
its  brown  wings.  It  is  also  called  the 
Comma  Butterfly,  because  of  a  curved. 

%  just  out  of  chrysalis.     siivery    sp()t   on   tne  under  side   of   the 

hind  wing.     A  very  handsome  and  the  largest  of  our  butter- 
flies is  the  common  Milkweed  or  Monarch  Butterfly.     Its 


FIG.  84.  Monarch  Butterfly  Sipping  Clover 
Nectar. 


FIG.  85.    Comma  Butter- 


238 


NATURE-STUDY 


larva,  which  is  a  large,  fleshy,  yellow  and  black  striped  cat- 
erpillar,, feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  milkweed,  and  forms  a 
beautiful  green  and  gold  chrysalis. 

The  adult  has  broad,  brown  wings,  banded  or  nerved  with 
black,  with  several  rows  of  white  spots  along  the  border.  An 
interesting  thing  about  this  species  is  that  toward  the  close  of 
summer  it  migrates  southward  in  vast  swarms.  I  have 
seen  the  sky  full  of  these  butterflies  flying  and  drifting  with 


FIG.  86.    Sphinx-moth. 
(Note  long  proboscis.     Scale  in  inches.) 

the  wind  on  their  way  South.  Sometimes  they  will  settle  for 
the  night  in  the  trees  of  the  forest,  when  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  collect  them  by  the  hundred. 

A  butterfly  which,  by  most  people  not  especially  acquainted 
with  it,  is  taken  for  the  monarch  is  the  somewhat  smaller 
Viceroy.  This  butterfly  illustrates  the  wonderful  mimicry 
that  some  insects  and  other  animals  are  capable  of.  The 
monarch  butterfly  is  not  eaten  by  birds,  probably  because 
of  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste.  The  group  to  which  the 
viceroy  belongs  are  generally  purple  and  white,  and  are  liked 
by  birds,  but  the  viceroy  by  putting  on  a  "lion's  skin," 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  239 

resembling  the  unpalatable  monarch,  escapes  harm  from  the 
birds.  This  is  a  remarkable  case  of  adaptation  for  protection. 
The  viceroy  may,  however,  be  distinguished  from  the  mon- 
arch by  the  fact  that  it  has  a  black  band  across  the  hind  wings, 
and  some  minor  differences. 

The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  willow  leaves,  and  forms  a 
cocoon  in  a  curled-up  leaf. 

Many  of  the  Moths  are  beautiful.  Many,  though  incon- 
spicuous when  at  rest  with  folded  wings,  have  bright  colors  on 
their  under  wings  and  back. 

The  common  Tomato-worm,  feeding  on  the  tomato  plant, 
is  a  large,  green  caterpillar,  with  a  sort  of  tail-like  projection 
near  the  hind  end,  oblique  markings  upon  its  segments,  and 
a  line  down  its  back.  The  green  color  and  the  markings 
very  nicely  imitate  a  curled-up  leaf,  with  its  veins  and  midrib. 
The  caterpillar  is  about  three  inches  long.  When  ready  to 
pupate  it  burrows  into  the  ground  and  forms  a  chrysalis,  but 
no  cocoon.  There  is  a  peculiar,  slender  handle  to  the  chrys- 
alis, which  is  a  special  case  for  the  very  long  tongue  or  pro- 
boscis of  the  coming  moth.  In  the  spring  the  pupa  wriggles 
to  the  surface,  and  the  moth  emerges.  This  is  a  beautiful 
insect  with  large,  gray  marbled  wings,  five  yellow  spots  on 
each  side  of  the  back  of  the  abdomen,  and  large  antennae. 
The  tongue  is  unusually  long.  It  is  generally  kept  curled  up 
like  a  watch-spring  under  the  head,  but  when  in  use  in  sipping 
nectar  it  is  straightened  out  and  then  measures  nearly  four 
inches  in  length.  If  such  a  moth  is  caught  and  killed,  the 
tongue  may  be  straightened  out  with  a  pin  or  forceps,  the  end 
gently  clamped,  and  the  moth  suspended  from  this  and 
allowed  to  dry. 

Such  a  mount  of  a  moth  with  extended  tongue  is  very  in- 


240 


NATURE-STUDY 


structive,  and  shows  well  how  the  insect  is  adapted  for  sucking 
nectar  from  deep-tubed  flowers,  such  as  the  honeysuckle, 
lily,  etc.  The  moth  may  be  seen  flying  about  the  flower 
beds  toward  dusk.  Because  the  wings  are  kept  in  a  state 
of  rapid  vibration  it  is  called  the  Humming-bird  Moth. 

It  is  about  as  large 
as  a  humming-bird. 
It  is  also-  called  the 
Hawk-moth.  It  be- 
longs to  the  group 
of  moths  known  as 
Sphinx- moths. 
Other  common 
moths  of  this  group 
are  the  Grape  Vine 
Caterpillar,  the 
White-lined  Sphinx- 
moth,  and  the  Bum- 
blebee-hawk Moths, 
also  called  Clear 
Wings  from  the 
transparency  of 
their  wings. 

Another  remarkable  family  of  moths  is  that  of  the  Giant 
Silk-worm.  This  includes  the  Cecropia,  Promethea,  lo,  and 
Luna  Moths,  all  of  which  are  very  large  and  beautiful. 

The  Cecropia-moth  is  the  largest  of  our  moths,  measuring 
sometimes  over  six  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  Its 
general  color  is  dusky  brown,  with  blending  borders  and 
spots  of  black,  red,  and  white.  The  body  of  the  moth  is 
very  thick  and  plump,  and  it  has  a  pair  of  large  feath- 


FIG.  87.     Caterpillar  of  Cecropia-moth. 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  241 

ered  antennae.  The  legs  are  covered  with  hairs,  and  the  body 
also  is  hair-covered,  especially  the  chest.  The  abdomen  is 
marked  with  white  bands.  The  moth  is  nocturnal.  Its 
caterpillar  is  a  large,  fleshy  creature  of  a  dull  green  color,  with 
rows  of  blue  tubercles  at  the  sides,  and  yellow  tubercles  on 
the  back.  It  is  about  three  inches  in  length.  The  cater- 
pillar feeds  upon  butternut,  walnut,  cherry,  willow,  and 
many  other  trees,  and  spins  a  large  silken  cocoon  on  the  twigs 
of  the  food  tree.  These  cocoons  are  very  conspicuous  in  the 
winter  on  the  bare  trees  and  may  then  be  collected.  They 
are  made  of  a  good  quality  of  silk  and  are  double  walled. 
At  the  top  is  Jeft  a  loosely  covered  opening,  through  which 
the  moth  comes  out  in  May  or  June. 

Children  should  be  instructed  to  bring  in  such  cocoons, 
which  may  then  be  hung  up  in  the  school-room.  The  emer- 
gence of  the  moths  may  be  seen  in  the  spring,  and  will  always 
cause  a  mild  excitement.  It  is  very  interesting  to  see  the 
moth  coming  out  with  soft,  crumpled  wings,  and  then  proceed 
to  inflate  them. 

The  lo  or  Bull's-eye  Moth  is  a  smaller  species,  called  by 
these  names  because  of  a  large  eye-like  spot  on  the  hind  wing. 
The  female  is  brown,  the  male  yellow,  with  shadings  of  pur- 
ple, black,  and  red. 

The  Promethea-moth  is  also  a  common  species.  It 
somewhat  resembles  the  Cecropia,  but  is  smaller,  being  about 
four  inches  across  from  tip  to  tip.  Unlike  its  cousins  it  is  a 
day  flier.  The  female  is  reddish  brown,  with  a  wavy  line  of 
white  across  both  pairs  of  wings.  There  is  a  conspicuous  eye 
spot  in  the  outer  corner  of  the  front  wings.  The  male  is 
black.  The  wavy  white  line  so  noticeable  in  the  female  is 
faint,  but  the  eye  spots  are  there.  This  moth  has  a  very 


242 


NATURE-STUDY 


short,  useless  tongue.  It  is  said  that  it  does  not  eat  in  the 
adult  stage.  Its  cocoon  is  found  on  fruit,  nut,  and  other  trees 
where  it  has  lived  as  a  caterpillar.  The  cocoon  is  spun  inside 
of  a  rolled-up  leaf.  The  caterpillar  seems  to  know  that  the 


FIG.  88.    Luna-moth. 
(General  color  apple-green.) 

leaf  may  drop  off  in  the  fall,  so  it  fastens  the  petiole  firmly  to 
the  twig  with  silk  fibres. 

One  of  the  finest  moths  is  the  Luna-moth,  whose  caterpillar 
feeds  upon  various  trees,  such  as  the  walnut  and  the  hickory. 
The  caterpillar  is  pale  green,  with  a  pearly  head,  yellow  lines 
transversely  between  each  two  segments  of  the  abdomen,  and 
a  yellow  line  along  each  side  of  the  body.  The  adult  moth  is 
of  an  apple-green  color,  with  a  border  of  brownish  purple  on 
the  wings.  Each  wing  has  an  eye  spot  with  a  transparent 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL  AND  OTHERWISE  243 

centre.  The  hind  wings  are  drawn  out  into  curving  swallow- 
tails. It  is  a  nocturnal  insect,  and  is  often  attracted  by  elec- 
tric lights. 

Protective  Devices 

We  have  seen  that  insects  have  many  enemies.  Some, 
however,  are  especially  adapted  to  escape  them.  A  few, 
like  the  flies  and  dragon-flies,  depend  upon  their  fleetness 
of  wing.  Others,  like  the  water-spiders  and  water-beetles, 
escape  by  diving  down  into  the  water,  carrying  with  them  a 
globule  of  air  to  breathe.  Locusts  and  crickets  are  good 
jumpers.  Wasps  and  bees  have  a  good  weapon  of  defence 
that  we  have  learned  to  respect.  Beetles  have,  in  addition  to 
their  naturally  strong  chitinous  skin,  a  pair  of  hard  wing- 
covers  that  serve  as  a  shield. 

But  more  interesting  are  the  modes  of  concealment  prac- 
tised, by  many  insects.  The  one  that  escapes  observation  the 
best  is  the  one  that  will  escape  being  eaten  by  birds  and  other 
creatures,  or  attacked  by  parasites.  Very  many  insects 
imitate  not  only  the  colors  of  their  background,  but  even 
the  shape  of  leaves,  sticks,  and  insects  that  are  not  attacked. 
Plant-lice,  leaf-hoppers,  lace-wings,  grasshoppers,  and  many 
caterpillars  have  the  same  color  as  the  leaves  upon  which 
they  live.  Other  caterpillars,  moths,  butterflies,  beetles,  and 
bugs  mimic  the  grays,  blacks,  and  browns  of  the  twigs  and 
bark  of  the  trees  or  the  earth.  So  effective  is  this  mode  of 
concealment  that  they  are  generally  not  seen  unless  they 
move,  or  happen  to  be  on  a  differently  colored  background 
from  that  upon  which  they  generally  stay. 

The  Walking-sticks  found  upon  oak  and  other  trees  are 
beautiful  examples  of  protective  mimicry.  The  long,  slender, 


244 


NATURE-STUDY 


jointed  body  is  gray  or  brown  or  green  to  match  the  twigs  of 
the  tree,  and  the  long,  thin  body  and  legs  are  like  thin,  green 
branches. 

Many  of  the  Canker-worms  or  Inch- 
worms  resemble  twigs  very  closely, 
and  when  disturbed  assume  motion- 
less, twig-like  attitudes. 

One  of  the  most  striking  illustra- 
tions of  protective  coloration  is  the 
Kallima,  a  South  American  butterfly, 
which  has  blue  and  orange  colors  on 
the  upper  side  of  its  wings.  This 
butterfly,  when  resting,  assumes  a 
leaf-like  attitude,  and  the  wings  are 
closed,  exposing  only  the  leaf -colored 
under  side.  There  are  even  lines  that 
mimic  the  venation  of  a  leaf,  so  as  to 
make  the  illusion  more  complete. 

A  number  of  our  native  butterflies, 
with  conspicuous  upper  wing-surfaces, 
conceal  themselves  on  the  leaves  and 
bark  of  a  tree,  the  under  side  of  the 
closed  wings  mimicking  the  color  of 
these  surfaces.  Moths  also  are  pro- 
tectively colored,  usually  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  first  pair  of  wings. 
In  the  description  of .  the  viceroy  butterfly,  reference  was 
made  to  the  fact  that  it  put  on,  as  it  were,  the  livery  of  another 
butterfly,  which  for  some  reason  seems  to  be  immune  to 
the  attacks  of  birds,  namely,  the  Monarch.  Many  other  such 
cases  of  mimicry  may  be  mentioned. 


FIG.  89.    Walking-stick. 


INSECTS,  HARMFUL,  AND  OTHERWISE  245 

One  day  I  found  on  some  goldenrods  what  I  took  to  be  a 
new  kind  of  bee.  It  was  a  beautiful,  gold-banded  insect,  and 
I  wanted  it  for  my  collection.  So  I  captured  several  in  my 
cyanide  bottle,  taking  good  care  not  to  be  stung.  Later,  on 
closer  examination,  I  found 
that  this  was  not  a  bee  at  all, 
but  a  harmless  fly  which  had 
put  on  the  dress  of  a  bee, 
probably  to  make  other  crea- 
tures think  that  it,  like  the 
bees,  carried  a  dangerous, 
concealed  weapon.  It  was 
one  of  the  Bee-flies. 

It  is  not  intended   to  in- 
timate here  that  these  pro- 
tective   colors     and     forms 
were    brought    about    con- 
sciously by  the  insects  them-      FlG"  9°-  Protective  Coloration  of  a  Moth- 
selves,  as  if  they  made  an  effort  to  develop  along  these  lines. 
It  is  certainly  a  fact,  however,  that  they  avail  themselves  of 
these  protective  devices. 

How  these  advantageous  characteristics  arose  is  difficult 
to  say.  They  did  arise,  however,  in  the  course  of  evolution 
in  each  case,  and  then  the  law  of  natural  selection  operated 
and,  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  the  forms  not  so  well  adapted 
disappeared  and  the  fittest  survived.  Those  that  were  pro- 
tectively colored  or  shaped  to  resemble  twigs,  leaves,  dan- 
gerous creatures,  etc.,  were  the  ones  most  likely  to  survive. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SOME  LOWER  ANIMALS 

A  FEW  of  the  lower  animals  should  receive  some  attention 
besides  those  already  discussed.  Spiders,  crayfish,  lobsters, 
crabs,  clams,  oysters,  snails,  starfish,  coral,  sponges,  and  other 
related  forms  make  very  interesting  nature-study  material. 

Most  people  probably  think  of  Spiders  as  insects.  Pupils 
should  be  taught  the  chief  distinctions  between  these  two 
classes.  Spiders  have  eight  legs,  and  their  bodies  are  divided 
into  only  two  principal  parts.  The  head  and  chest  are  not 
distinct  from  each  other,  but  the  abdomen  is  marked  off  from 
them.  Spiders  do  not  have  compound  eyes,  but  a  variable 
number  of  simple  eyes.  Furthermore,  they  have  no  wings. 
Otherwise  they  closely  resemble  insects.  Spiders  have  good 
mouth-parts  adapted  for  catching  and  eating  insects.  The 
jaws  or  mandibles  are  especially  large  and  terminate  in  sharp 
fangs,  through  which  a  poison  can  be  ejected  into  the  victim 
which  kills  or  paralyzes  it.  This  poison,  however,  is  not 
powerful  enough  to  produce  painful  or  dangerous  results  in 
man,  except  in  the  case  of  the  larger  ground  spiders,  such  as 
the  tarantulas,  whose  poisonous  bite  is  painful,  but  not,  as  is 
usually  believed,  fatal  to  man.  The  spider  has  a  pair  of 
jointed  palpi  or  feelers,  which  often  resemble  another  pair  of 
legs. 

Spiders  make  good  school-room  studies.    Have  the  children 

246 


SOME   LOWER  ANIMALS  247 

bring  to  school  different  kinds  of  spiders,  and  put  them  into 
jars  or  cages.  Feed  them  and  observe  their  interesting 
habits.  Spiders  may  be  found  in  attics,  cellars,  sheds, 
and  barns,  on  garden  flowers,  on  fences  and  old  walls, 
under  stones  and  boards,  under  the  bark  of  decaying 
logs,  etc.  In  these  places  will  also  be  found  small, 
round  masses  of  eggs  wrapped  in  silk  cocoons.  These 
also  should  be  gathered  and  allowed  to  hatch  out  in  the 
school. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  spiders,  and  each  has  its 
peculiar  ways  of  catching  prey,  building  a  home,  etc. 
Under  stones,  logs,  and  bark,  are  found  ground  and 
running  spiders,  which  are  very  nimble  and  catch  their 
prey  by  running.  On  old  fences  and  walls  are  found 
spiders  that  lurk  for  insects,  and  when  these  come  near 
enough  they  suddenly  pounce  upon  them.  These  are 
the  jumping  spiders.  In  the  heart  of  many  garden 
flowers  there  lie  in  wait  certain  spiders  that  assume 
the  color  of  the  flower,  and  catch  unsuspecting  butter- 
flies and  other  insects.  These,  from  their  peculiar  shape 
and  the  habit  of  running  sideways  and  back- 
wards, are  called  crab  spiders.  They  do 
not  spin  webs  to  catch  their  prey. 

But  there  is  another  class  of  spiders  that 
spin  snares  with  which  to  entrap  flies  and 
other  insects.    These  webs  are  of  different  de-     FlG  QI    An  Orb 
grees  of  beauty  and  perfection  of  construction.  Weaver. 

The  housewife  is  worried  by  the  appearance  of  cobwebs  on  the 
ceilings  and  in  the  corners  of  her  rooms.  This  is  a  web  spun 
by  a  spider.  Cobwebs  have  no  definite  shape  or  plan.  They 
are  simply  loose  or  dense,  tangled  masses  of  fibres  spread  out 


248  NATURE-STUDY 

in  sheets.  The  funnel  spiders'  webs  are  somewhat  more 
perfect.  In  the  summer  and  early  fall  we  often  see  the  lawns 
covered  with  dense  masses  of  cobwebs.  These  are  sheets  of 
web  suspended  from  the  grass,  and  centering  about  a  funnel- 
shaped  hole  of  silk,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  spider  lives. 
When  a  fly  falls  into  the  web  the  spider  rushes  out  to  seize  it. 

The  most  beautiful  webs  are 
made  by  the  garden  or  orb 
spiders.  These  webs  are  fre- 
quently seen  hung  nearly  ver- 
tically among  the  branches  of 
garden  plants,  the  angles  of 
fences,  open  windows  and  door- 
ways, etc.  It  would  pay  to 
make  a  study  of  the  construc- 
tion of  such  a  web,  especially  if 
one  is  so  fortunate  as  to  see  the 
spider  making  it.  Note  the  sup- 
Fic.92.  Funnel  web  spider.  porting  threads,  the  radii  or 
spokes  of  the  wheel,  and  the  spiral  thread.  Note  also  that  only 
the  spiral  thread  is  sticky.  Examine  closely  and  see  the  minute 
globules  of  viscid  fluid  that  cover  this  spiral  thread.  Some 
species  of  spiders  rest  at  the  centre  of  the  web,  others  lie  con- 
cealed in  some  leaf  or  other  nook  near  the  web.  A  thread 
running  from  the  web  is  held  by  the  spider,  which  can  at  once 
tell  when  an  insect  flies  into  the  net.  Take  the  class  out  into  the 
gardens  or  fields  and  study  some  of  these  webs.  Throw  some 
insects  into  the  net  and  see  what  the  spider  does  with  them. 
There  is  a  curious  little  spider,  often  seen  in  the  fall,  which  is 
known  as  the  balloon  spider.  It  causes  the  air  to  be  filled 
with  delicate  gossamers  or  threads  of  silk.  It  is  a  small, 


SOME   LOWER  ANIMALS 


249 


black  spider,  that  may  be  seen  running  on  the  ground,  on  the 
fences,  or  upon  plants.  It  has  a  way  of  thrusting  up  the 
abdomen  and  ejecting  a  thread  of  silk,  which  is  carried  along 
by  the  wind.  As  the  wind  takes  the  thread,  the  spider  spins 


FIG.  93.     Dewy  Web  of  an  Orb  Spider. 
(The  spider  lives  under  one  of  the  lily  leaves.) 

out  more,  and,  when  the  thread  is  several  feet  in  length,  the 
spider  makes  a  little  leap  and  sails  off  on  its  silken  balloon. 
Pick  up  some  of  these  spiders,  and  on  letting  them  crawl  up  to 
the  end  of  a  pencil  or  the  finger  you  may  observe  this  per- 
formance. 

At  the  rear  of  the  abdomen  is  the  spinneret,  from  which 


250  NATURE-STUDY 

the  silk  threads  issue.  This  consists  of  a  number  of  little 
projections  covered  with  minute,  tubular  hairs,  through  which 
the  threads  come.  The  silk  is  at  first  liquid,  but  quickly 
hardens  in  the  air.  The  different  strands  are  pressed  and 
twisted  together  into  a  strong  thread.  The  spider  uses  its 

hind  feet  in  arranging, 
guiding,  and  fastening  its 
silk. 

Shake  a  spider  from  its 
web.  Notice  that  it  is 
still  attached  to  the  web 
by  a  fine  thread  upon 
which  it  again  climbs 
back. 

Spiders  are  useful  crea- 
tures and  destroy  many 

FIG.  94.     Spinneret.  . 

insects.  Out  of  doors 

they  ought  to  be  protected  rather  than  killed.  Try  to 
counteract  the  prevailing  prejudice  against  them. 

Related  to  spiders  are  the  Daddy-long-legs,  or  Harvestmen, 
which  also  are  useful  in  destroying  mosquitoes  and  other 
insects. 

Centipedes  and  Millipedes  possess  the  segmental  character 
of  the  body,  the  jointed  legs,  and  the  biting  mouth-parts  of 
insects,  yet  are  very  different.  They  are  found  under /boards, 
logs,  and  stones.  Centipedes  are  flat,  worm-like  animals,  with 
a  pair  of  legs  to  each  joint  of  the  body.  They  are  carniv- 
orous, living  on  other  insects,  worms,  etc.,  which  they  catch. 
The  first  pair  of  feet  are  modified  into  poison  fangs.  In 
tropical  countries  there  are  large  centipedes  whose  bite  is 
dangerous  to  man.  Similar  to  the  last  is  the  millipede,  or 


SOME   LOWER  ANIMALS  251 

thousand-legs.  This,  however,  has  two  pairs  of  legs  upon 
each  segment.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  It  is  more  cylindrical  in  shape  than  the  centipede, 
and  is  harmless. 

In  the  cellar  among  the  vegetables,  under  boards  and 
stones,  we  often  find  little  flattened,  jointed,  insect-like  animals 
which  have  legs  on  all  the  body  segments,  and  which  have  the 
habit  of  curling  up  into  a  rounded  mass  when  disturbed. 
These  are  called  Pill-bugs,  or  Wood-lice,  but  are  related  more 
closely  to  the  crayfish  than  to  insects. 

It  is  well  also  to  call  attention  to  the  many  minute  forms  of 
animals  that .  swarm  in  the  stagnant  waters  of  pools  and 
sluggish  streams,  and  in  lakes.  A  jar  containing  such  water 
will  show  to  the  naked  eye  even  these  animalcula  swimming 
about,  some  barely  visible,  others  large  enough  to  be  plainly 
seen.  Many  of  these  consist  of  water-fleas  and  copepods, 
animals  related  to  the  crayfish.  With  a  compound  micros- 
cope a  drop  of  water  is  seen  to  teem  with  animalcula.  Let 
the  children  know  that  these  small  animals  are  very  important, 
in  that  they  form  the  food  of  many  larger  aquatic  animals. 
Fish  are  very  fond  of  them.  Put  some  minnows  in  a  jar  with 
these  animalcula,  and  see  how  eagerly  they  feed  upon  them. 

The  seashore  is  a  rich  field  for  the  naturalist,  and  teachers 
on  the  coast  should  make  the  most  of  their  opportunity  by 
studying  the  plants  and  animals  which  the  waves  throw  upon 
the  sands.  In  inland  waters,  though  the  life  is  not  so  varied, 
yet  there  are  some  animals  that  we  should  study. 

The  Crayfish  is  very  common  in  lakes  and  streams.  Its 
structure  should  be  compared  with  that  of  the  insects.  The 
articulated  body  and  appendages  should  be  noted.  Study 
the  eyes,  mouth-parts,  the  large  claws  and  feet,  the  swim- 


252 


NATURE-STUDY 


merets  and  the  tail.  What  does  the  crayfish  do  with  its 
claws?  How  does  it  crawl?  Observe  the  way  it  swims. 
Note  the  hard  shell.  Crayfish  grow  by  moulting  their  shells 
like  insects.  We  often  find  the  little  shafts  or  tunnels  of 
crayfish  in  wet  meadows.  They  make  these  in  digging 
down  for  water  or  wet  soil.  Along  rivers  that  are  enclosed 

by  dikes  or  levees, 

crayfish  •  sometimes 
cause  great  harm  by 
boring  through  the 
earth  wall  and  thus 
beginning  a  great 
crevasse  or  break 
that  may  cause  much 
damage.  Crayfish 
are  scavengers  and 
live  upon  dead  ani- 
mals, fish,  etc.  The  protective  coloration  of  the  crayfish 
should  be  referred  to.  Correct  the  misuse  of  the  word 
"crab"  for  crayfish. 

The  Lobster  and  the  Crab  should  be  compared  with  the 
crayfish  as  to  structure.  They  are  salt-water  animals,  and 
are  best  studied  at  the  seashore,  where  their  life  habits  can 
be  observed.  Lobsters  are  very  much  like  large  crayfish  in 
structure.  Those  seen  in  the  markets  are  generally  red, 
but  this  is  not  their  natural  color,  which  is  much  like  that  of 
the  crayfish.  The  redness  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lob- 
ster has  been  boiled.  Crabs  differ  very  greatly  from  the 
crayfish  in  shape,  and  yet  their  relationship  can  be  readily 
recognized.  Their  bodies  are  short  and  broad,  and  their 
abdomen  is  always  bent  under  the  thorax.  They  crawl 


FIG.  95.    A  Crayfish. 


SOME   LOWER  ANIMALS  253 

backwards  and  sideways  as  well  as  forward.  Vast  num- 
bers of  lobsters  and  crabs  are  caught  and  eaten  on  the  sea- 
coasts. 

Mollusks  constitute  another  type  of  animal  life.  Clams, 
oysters,  and  snails  all  are  interesting  creatures  to  study. 
These  animals  as 
a  rule  have  a  limy 
shell  which  is  se- 
creted by  the  skin. 

Snails  are  to  be 
found  in  ponds 
and  streams,  on 
sticks  and  stones, 
and  on  water 
plants.  Some 
kinds  are  found 
on  land,  in  gar- 
dens, on  bark,  and 
old  logs.  Some 

Snails  have  a  Shell  FIG.  96.    Land  Snails. 

of  a  cornucopia  shape,  and  others  have  a  flat  spiral.  Some, 
like  the  slugs,  have  no  regular  shell,  but  only  a  small,  scaly 
mantle  on  the  back.  The  shell  is  increased  at  the  free  edge 
by  the  addition  of  new  layers. 

Many  snails  breathe  air  in  the  water  by  means  of  gills. 
Among  the  aquatic  snails  the  kinds  that  can  close  the  opening 
of  the  shell  with  a  sort  of  flap  or  door  are  gill-breathers. 
Other  aquatic  snails  are  lung-breathers,  and  must  come  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  periodically  for  more  air.  Land  snails 
also  have  simple  lungs. 

When  a  snail  is  "out  of  its  shell"  there  will  be  seen  a  long, 


254  NATURE-STUDY 

fleshy  portion,  upon  which  the  creature  rests  and  with  which 
it  crawls.  This  is  the  foot.  At  the  front  end  are  to  be  seen 
some  horn-like  projections  called  antennae  or  feelers.  Land 
snails  have  four  such,  the  second  pair  larger  and  bearing  the 
eyes.  If  the  animal  is  touched  on  the  antennae  it  quickly 
retracts  them,  turning  them  inward,  as  we  turn  a  glove 
finger  inside  out.  Water  snails  have  only  two  feelers,  and  the 
eyes  are  at  their  base.  As  land  snails  crawl  over  the  ground 
and  plants  they  leave  a  track  of  slime. 

Snails  feed  upon  algae  and  other  plants.  Some  of  the  land 
snails  do .  considerable  harm  to  the  vegetables  in  gardens. 
Watch  a  snail  as  it  moves  along  on  the  glass  of  an  aquarium. 
On  the  under  side  near  the  front  will  be  seen  an  opening,  the 
mouth.  This  is  provided  with  a  hard  upper  lip,  and  a  rough, 
rasp-like  "  tongue, "  with  which  the  snail  scrapes  and  eats. 

The  Fresh-water  Clam  or  Mussel  is  common  on  the  sandy 
flats  of  lakes  and  rivers.  This  shell  animal  burrows,  or 
rather  ploughs,  in  the  surface  of  the  sand  and  makes  long 
furrows.  It  moves  by  means  of  a  strong,  fleshy  foot. 

Clams  breathe  by  means  of  gills  within  the  shell.  Water 
is  kept  constantly  in  circulation  through  the  gills.  This 
circulation  may  be  nicely  shown  by  the  following  experiment 
on  a  clam  in  an  aquarium.  Be  careful  not  to  disturb  the 
animal  lest  it  close  its  shell.  With  a  long  pipette  or  fountain- 
pen  filler  carefully  drop  some  indigo,  carmine,  or  ink  solution 
just  behind  the  shell,  at  the  end  opposite  to  the  foot,  near  the 
sand.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  colored  liquid  is  drawn  in,  and 
then  later  ejected  from  another  part  of  the  shell  a  little  higher 
than  where  it  entered. 

The  shell  is  an  interesting  structure.  It  has  a  hinge  of 
elastic  ligament,  which  naturally  tends  to  hold  it  slightly 


SOME   LOWER   ANIMALS    *  255 

open.  The  animal,  however,  has  strong  muscles  on  the  in- 
side with  which  it  can  hold  the  shell  tightly  shut. 

The  shell  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  concentric  layers, 
which  can  be  seen  on  the  outside.  Many  mussels  have  a 
beautiful,  iridescent  lining  to  the  shell — the  mother-of-pearl. 
This  is  used  in  making  buttons  and  ornaments.  On  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  there  flourishes  a  large  in- 
dustry of  collecting  clams  for  their  mother-of-pearl.  In 
some  clams  and  other  mussels  true  pearls  are  formed  as  an 
unnatural  growth  between  the  shell  and  the  fleshy  mantle 
lining  it.  The  nucleus  of  a  pearl  is  generally  some  foreign 
body,  such  as  a  grain  of  sand.  Let  the  children  read  about 
the  Pearl  Oyster  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Fine  pearls  are  often 
found  in  fresh-water  mussels. 

In  comparison  with  these  animals  the  common  Oyster 
should  be  studied.  Get  unopened  oysters  and  make  a  general 
comparison  of  structure  with  that  of  the  clam. 

Many  creatures  are  called  "worms"  which  are  not  strict- 
ly so  at  all,  but  the  Earth-worm  is  a  true  worm.  A  brief 
study  of  the  segmental  body,  the  bristle  feet,  the  life  habits, 
and  the  uses  of  this  creature  should  be  made.  Worms, 
unlike  the  worm-like  caterpillars  and  grubs  of  insects,  do  not 
change  into  some  other  form.  For  comparison  a  study  may 
be  made  of  the  Leech,  or  Bloodsucker,  another  worm  that  is 
abundant  in  sluggish  brooks,  in  ponds  and  lakes. 

The  Starfish  and  Sea-urchins,  found  on  the  seacoasts  are 
types  of  animals  built  upon  the  radial  plan.  The  mouth  is 
at  the  centre,  on  the  under  side,  and  the  various  other  organs 
of  the  body  radiate  from  this  centre.  Starfish  have  a  number 
of  arms,  on  the  underside  of  which  are  little,  sucker-like  feet, 
with  which  the  animal  moves.  Sea-urchins  have  a  similar 


256  NATURE-STUDY 

structure.  Both  are  protected  with  a  calcareous  shell  pro- 
vided with  knobs  or  spines.  When  the  animal  is  killed  the 
fleshy  parts  decay,  leaving  the  shell,  and  this  is  all  that  we 
see  in  the  specimens  often  found  in  the  homes  as  curios. 

The  Coral  Polyp,  being  of  so  much  importance  in  geography 
and  geology,  should  not  be  omitted.  It  is  one  of  the  lower 
animals  that  in  its  fixed  growth  is  almost  plant-like.  Essen- 
tially this  animal  is  a  little  fleshy  sac,  with  an  orifice  or  mouth 
at  the  top,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  arms  or  ten- 
tacles. These  arms  wave  about  in  the  water  and  draw  minute 
animals  into  the  mouth.  The  coral  polyp  forms  a  hard 
deposit  of  lime  carbonate  in  the  lower  part  of  its  body-wall, 
and  this  is  what  remains  after  the  death  of  the  creature.  It 
is  this  part  which  is  used  for  ornaments,  and  which  builds 
up  great  coral  reefs  and  islands  in  the  sea.  Many  large  rock 
areas  in  the  earth  are  made  of  coral  limestone  deposited  in 
some  former  age.  The  branching  of  corals  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  these  animals  have  the  power  of  producing  buds  on 
their  sides,  which  develop  into  other  polyps  and  remain  con- 
nected with  the  parent  animal. 

Show  pictures  of  the  coral  polyp,  diagrams  to  show  its 
structure;  and  pieces  of  coral  skeleton  of  various  kinds.  The 
coral  polyp  is  appropriately  studied  in  connection  with  Florida, 
or  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  in  geography. 

In  our  fresh-water  lakes  and  streams  we  have  an  animal 
that  resembles  the  coral  in  many  respects,  except  that  it  forms 
no  skeleton.  This  is  the  Hydra,  which  may  often  be  seen  in 
aquaria  attached  to  the  sides.  If  one  of  these  can  be  found 
it  should  be  used  to  illustrate  the  general  appearance  and 
habits  of  the  coral. 

Another  very  low  animal,  also  of  fixed  location,  is  the 


SOME  LOWER  ANIMALS  257 

Sponge.  A  simple  study  may  be  made  of  it.  Note  how  it 
encrusts  plants  or  rocks,  the  color,  and  the  rough  feeling  due 
to  minute  needles  of  silica.  The  horny  or  leathery  skeleton 
of  the  bath  sponge  is  the  chief  thing  to  note.  The  method 
of  fishing  for  sponges  and  their  preparation  are  also  of 
interest. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN 

CHILDREN'S  gardens  are  an  important  aid  in  education,  not 
only  because  of  the  practical,  but  also  for  the  culture  value 
of  such  study.  Gardens  have  been  maintained  for  a  number 
of  years  in  connection  with  many  schools  in  this  country. 
At  first  they  were  mainly  for  the  decoration  of  school-grounds, 
but  they  have  now  been  found  to  be  a  useful  educational 
material.  Industrial  schools,  such  as  our  agricultural  schools, 
the  schools  for  the  indigent,  for  the  negro  and  the  Indian, 
etc.,  soon  put  the  garden  idea  to  more  practical  uses,  both  to 
train  the  pupils  mentally  and  morally,  and  to  teach  them 
something  that  would  help  them  to  earn  their  livelihood. 
The  primary  schools  are  beginning  to  work  along  the  same 
line,  but  the  custom  is  not  as  prevalent  as  it  should  be.  In 
Europe  school  gardens  are  an  established  institution.  At 
first  they  were  maintained  to  furnish  the  teachers  with  a  part 
of  their  support,  but  long  ago  they  broadened  out  into  real 
educational  lines. 

The  school  garden  should  be  a  sort  of  outdoor  laboratory, 
a  place  for  the  outdoor  study  of  growing  plants,  soil,  insects, 
weeds,  etc.,  and  for  the  application  of  the  facts  learned  in 
indoor  nature-study.  The  garden  should  supply  material 
for  such  indoor  lessons  and  for  art  study.  It  can  be  made 

one  of  the  best  means  to  develop  in  the  pupils  thrift  and 

358 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


259 


responsibility,  gentleness,  and  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and 
for  growing  things.  In  many  places  it  may  be  made  very 
practical,  as  a  means  for  teaching  gardening,  elementary 
agriculture,  and  horticulture. 

Strange  to  say,  the  most  successful  children's  gardens  are 
to  be  found  in  the  larger  cities.     One  of  the  most  remarkable 


FIG.  97.     Children's  Farm  School,  DeWitt  Clinton  Park,  New  York  City. 

is  the  Children's  Farm  in  the  DeWitt  Clinton  Park  of  New 
York  City.  This  is  because  the  growing  of  plants  is  a 
revelation  and  intense  joy  to  city-bred  children,  whose  nature 
instinct  has  been  starved.  In  such  places  the  greatest 
enthusiasm  prevails  among  the  little  gardeners. 

It  has  been  found  that  children's  gardening  is  one  of  the 
very  best  ways  of  combating  the  evil  moral  effects  of  tenement 
and  slum  life.  In  such  centres  school  and  vacation  gardens 
have  worked  a  positive  revolution  in  the  habits  and  thoughts 


26o  NATURE-STUDY 

of  the  children  engaged  in  cultivation.  Responsibility  and 
care  for  a  little  plot  of  flowers  and  vegetables  has  the  best 
moral  influence  upon  such  children,  and  develops  a  respect 
for  the  property  rights  of  others.  Petty  thieving,  and  wanton 
destruction  of  flowers,  trees,  etc.,  have  in  numerous  places 
been  overcome  by  encouraging  the  children  to  cultivate 
gardens.  The  work  of  the  Children's  Farm  cited  above, 
that  of  the  Cleveland  Home  Gardening  Association,  and  of 
the  National  Cash  Register  Company  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  may 
be  referred  to  as  such  instances  of  moral  betterment.  The 
pecuniary  advantage  in  the  crops  to  the  poor,  and  the  physical 
benefit  from  the  open-air  exercise  in  the  garden  need  only  be 
mentioned. 

In  cities  the  mere  novelty  and  pleasure  in  seeing  things 
come  up  and  grow  and  blossom  may  be  a  sufficient  stimulus 
to  make  the  children  wish  to  keep  a  garden,  but  in  village 
and  country  schools  this  is  not  quite  enough.  Every  boy  and 
girl  knows  considerable  about  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and 
will  not  be  interested  in  the  simple  work  in  the  school  garden, 
unless  it  can  be  made  more  useful  and  practical  by  the  study 
of  the  soil,  the  conditions  of  plant  life,  plant  behavior,  rela- 
tions of  insects  to  plants,  nature  and  effect  of  weeds,  etc.,  and 
by  using  larger  plots  for  individual  beds,  so  that  the  value 
of  the  product  will  be  an  encouragement.  By  emphasizing 
the  agricultural  and  horticultural  phase  of  garden  work,  we 
can  make  it  attractive  and  profitable  to  country  children. 

As  the  agricultural  industry  is  the  largest  source  of  our 
national  wealth,  we  should  not  neglect  to  train  the  future 
workers  in  this  great  occupation.  Unfortunately  the  rapid 
development  of  manufacturing,  transportation,  and  com- 
merce has  drawn  many  of  our  country  youth  to  the  cities; 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  261 

furthermore,  the  proportion  of  immigrants  that  go  to  the 
fields  is  not  as  great  as  it  used  to  be.  As  a  result  the  cities 
have  developed  more  rapidly  than  the  country  population,  a 
result  that  many  deplore.  As  a  partial  check  to  the  tide  from 
the  country,  it  is  hoped  that  a  greater  consideration  of  rural 
life,  its  advantages,  beauty,  independence,  healthfulness,  etc., 
and  the  study  of  agricultural  methods  from  a  more  scientific 
point  of  view  in  the  common  school  may  prove  beneficial. 
Gardening  in  the  rural  schools  makes  farm  life  more  interest- 
ing, and  enriches  its  intellectual  content.  Agriculture  is  the 
mainstay  of  civilization.  If  it  should  cease  we  should 
probably  revert  to  savagery.  When,  through  a  series  of 
unfavorable  years,  the  agricultural  industry  fails,  then  all  other 
industries  are  depressed.  This  shows  how  dependent  we 
are  upon  nature,  even  in  this  highly  civilized  age.  Agri- 
culture can  be  successful  only  with  a  thorough  knowledge 
and  observance  of  the  natural  laws  and  conditions  govern- 
ing plant  life  and  growth.  The  farmer  must  adapt  his  crops 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  to  the  temperature  and  rainfall 
of  the  region,  or  he  will  meet  with  failure.  Similarly  the  laws 
relating  to  animal  life  must  be  applied  in  the  practical  man- 
agement of  farm  stock.  Hence  the  establishment  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  our  state  agricult- 
ural schools,  county  industrial  schools,  and  private  schools 
for  the  same  purpose.  A  proper  study  of  the  scientific  princi- 
ples that  underlie  farming  and  related  industries  would  do 
much  to  foster  an  interest  in  this  great  industry,  and  would  en- 
noble it.  Even  those  who  would  not  pursue  farming  as  a  voca- 
tion would  be  benefited  by  such  education.  It  would  help 
them  in  a  practical  way  with  making  flower  and  vegetable 
gardens  in  cities,  would  increase  their  love  for  plants  in  gen- 


262  NATURE-STUDY 

eral,  and  would  help  them  to  appreciate  in  a  measure  what 
the  farmer  is  doing  for  us. 

Considerable  of  this  sort  of  teaching  can  be  done  in  every 
country  school,  and  where  the  plan  of  consolidation  of  dis- 
tricts prevails,  a  generous  provision  should  be  made  for  such 
work  by  providing  land  for  an  experimental  farm,  and  fur- 
nishing means  for  carrying  on  the  work.  The  present  ten- 
dency throughout  the  country  to  establish  elementary  agri- 
cultural schools  indicates  the  demand  for  such  training. 
(See  also  Gardening  and  Agriculture  in  the  course  of  study 
under  various  grades.) 

Our  long  summer  vacations  could  be  very  profitably  em- 
ployed in  the  cities  with  outdoor  schools  of  gardening.  In 
this  way  many  boys  and  girls  could  be  kept  off  the  streets, 
and  be  given  healthful  and  moral  entertainment  as  well  as 
instruction. 

In  this  connection  I  would  urge  very  strongly  that  the 
children  be  encouraged  to  cultivate  gardens  at  home.  In 
some  places  this  is  done  in  correlation  with  the  school  work, 
especially  where  no  space  for  a  garden  is  available  at  the 
school.  Many  children  "have  to"  work  more  or  less  un- 
willingly in  the  home  garden.  I  believe  that  if  they  were 
given  ownership  rights  in  what  they  raise,  their  interest  in  the 
work  would  be  greater.  Let  a  boy  have  the  sole  care  of  a 
garden  and  sell  his  produce  to  the  family  at  market  rates. 
Or  let  him  have  the  surplus  not  used  by  the  family  to  sell  to 
the  neighbors  or  to  the  markets.  Then  he  would  not  need 
much  urging  to  do  garden  work,  for  it  would  pay.  There 
is  so  much  care  and  hard  work  in  gardening,  that  it  is  unrea- 
sonable to  expect  children  to  keep  at  it  spontaneously  without 
reward  or  encouragement. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


263 


How  to  Make  a  School  Garden 

There  is  probably  no  school  in  which  some  sort  of  garden- 
ing cannot  be  done,  be  it  nothing  more  than  window  gar- 
dening. But  wherever  space  can  be  secured  an  outdoor  garden 
should  be  attempted.  Beds  and  borders  and,  best  of  all, 
a  considerable  area  for  group  or  individual  plots  should  be 
set  aside.  The  garden  should  not  by  any  means  infringe 


FIG.  98.    The  Children's  Garden. 

upon  the  play-ground.  In  many  places,  where  the  school- 
grounds  do  not  afford  any  suitable  location  for  a  garden,  such 
may  be  found  in  vacant  lots  or  fields  nearby,  which  may 
often  be  had  for  nothing,  or  for  a  small  rental. 

The  garden  should  be  in  a  sunny  location,  not  under  trees 
or  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  for  plants  need  plenty  of 
light. 

BEDS,  BORDERS,  AND  GROUP  GARDENS:  If  the  garden 
must  be  small,  try  border  beds  along  the  buildings,  walks 


264 


NATURE-STUDY 


and  fences,  or  edge  of  the  grounds.  In  such  limited  areas 
individual  beds  are  out  of  the  question,  unless  the  number  of 
children  is  small.  Generally  groups  of  children  or  classes 
will  have  to  be  assigned  to  a  bed  or  border,  to  have  charge  of 
in  common.  These  beds  or  borders  should  not  be  placed 
in  the  lawn,  unless  intended  for  ornamental  purposes,  and 
even  then  it  is  wiser  to  have  them  along  the  edges  of  the 
lawn  as  borders,  for  a  neglected  or  withered  flower-bed  is  an 
eyesore,  and  the  green  grass  is  much  prettier.  Do  not  place 


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FIG.  99.    Suggestions  for  a  Border  Garden  Along  a  Wall,  Fence,  or  Mass  of  Shrubbery. 

Plant  taller  plants  and  vines  in  rear,  the  low,  trailing  kinds  in  front.    Vegetables  are  more  easily  cultivated 

if  planted  across  the  border.     Flowers  look  better  in  rows  parallel  with  the  border. 

the  borders  along  buildings,  if  the  rain-water  would  drip  on 
them.  The  north  side  of  a  building  or  a  fence  will  be  suit- 
able only  for  shade  loving  plants,  such  as  ferns,  many 
wild  flowers,  and  some  foliage  plants.  If,  however,  there  is 
plenty  of  light  reflected  from  neighboring  walls,  flowers  may 
sometimes  be  raised,  especially  the  kinds  not  requiring  so 
much  light,  such  as  asters,  pansies,  forget-me-nots,  violets, 
lilies-of-the-valley,  wild  flowers,  etc.  Have  the  beds  and 
parts  of  the  borders  in  charge  of  groups  of  children.  These 
little  gardens  may  be  made  much  prettier  than  the  larger 
garden  with  individual  plots,  and  the  children  will  take  great 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  265 

pride  in  them.  But  where  the  responsibility  for  the  care  of 
the  beds  is  so  distributed  as  it  is  in  a  large  group,  the  teacher 
will  have  to  see  to  it  that  the  children  do  not  forget  to  do 
their  share  of  the  cultivation.  If  the  beds  are  near  the  street 
where  they  are  in  view,  it  would  be  better  to  devote  them 
chiefly  to  flowers.  But  along  back  fences  or  other  more  out  of 
the  way  places  vegetables  should  also  be  raised,  and  the  gar- 
den should  be  used  more  for  experimenting  with  plant  life. 
Such  beds,  though  not  as  pretty  as  flower-beds,  may  really 
be  better  as  far  as  the  real  purpose  of  a  school  garden  is 
concerned.  The  little  children  could  in  such  beds  make 
miniature  farms,  and  raise  special  vegetables  or  experimental 
crops.  A  bed  or  border  should  be  set  aside  in  some  well- 
protected  place  for  a  tree  nursery.  Many  useful  lessons 
in  soil  preparation,  planting,  transplanting,  tillage,  etc.,  can 
be  given  with  these  little  gardens.  ( For  cultural  directions 
and  lists  of  plants  see  following  pages.) 

INDIVIDUAL  PLOTS  :  In  a  larger  garden  the  individual  plot 
for  children  above  the  primary  grade  is  the  best  plan  for  mak- 
ing the  most  of  a  garden.  Then  the  responsibility  for  the 
care  of  a  bed  may  be  fixed  and  the  moral  benefit  from  the 
cultivation  is  greatest.  In  case  of  neglect  by  the  planter  the 
bed  should  be  confiscated  and  given  to  some  other  child. 
In  some  schools  beds  two  feet  square  have  been  allotted,  but 
this  is  too  small  except  in  primary  work.  Larger  beds  make 
a  better  show  and  encourage  the  children  more.  They  also 
give  more  of  a  return  in  flowers  and  produce,  and  may  thus 
be  of  some  economical  value.  All  the  pupils  need  not  be 
required  to  take  garden  work.  Those  who  have  home  ad- 
vantages for  gardening  can  be  excused.  In  beginning  a 
school  garden  do  not  attempt  too  much,  but  start  out  with  a 


266  NATURE-STUDY 

few  willing  pupils.  The  work  should  be  in  charge  of  an 
experienced  teacher,  and  in  large  gardens  a  specially  trained 
director  should  be  engaged. 

PLOUGHING  AND  FERTILIZING:  If  the  garden  is  large  it 
should  be  ploughed;  if  small,  spaded.  Unless  the  spading  is 
done  by  some  one  else  than  pupils,  the  boys  of  the  upper 
grades  should  do  it  for  the  lower,  these  assisting  in  the  finish- 
ing and  lighter  work.  If  the  soil  has  not  been  tilled  and  is 
covered  with  sod,  this  should  be  turned  down  deeply. 
Virgin  soil  will  not  need  fertilizing  for  several  years,  but  old 
and  worn  out  soils  should  be  enriched.  The  character  of 
the  soil  must  be  taken  into  account.  Very  light  and  sandy 
soil  needs  manuring  especially,  both  for  fertilizing  and  to 
form  a  humus  to  hold  the  moisture  better.  Well-rotted 
barn-yard  manure  is  the  best.  In  cities  the  sweepings  from 
the  streets  have  been  utilized.  Manure  from  livery-stables 
and  streets  should,  however,  not  be  applied  too  fresh,  and 
should  be  especially  well  mixed  with  the  soil.  Apply  manure 
before  ploughing  or  spading  and  then  turn  under.  Heavy  and 
clayey  soils  also  need  manure  to  make  them  more  porous. 
Frequent  and  deep  tillage,  however,  renders  soil  more  por- 
ous. Application  of  lime  keeps  clayey  soil  from  cracking. 
Wood-ashes  is  a  good  fertilizer,  and  should  be  saved  for  that 
purpose.  A  little  mixed  commercial  fertilizer  (consisting  of 
nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus  compounds)  may  be 
applied  after  ploughing  or  spading,  and  raked  in.  The  rough 
soil  should  be  well  harrowed  or  raked,  all  lumps  broken  and 
stones,  etc.,  removed.  The  ploughing  or  spading  should  be 
done  about  the  first  of  April. 

PLANNING  THE  GARDEN:  Begin  early,  in  March  or  earlier, 
to  plan  the  garden.  Decide  upon  the  number  of  beds, 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  267 

whether  group  or  individual,  and  make  a  plan  on  paper  of  the 
garden  area.  Measure  the  whole  area  to  be  used,  and  divide 
it  among  the  different  grades  that  are  to  do  gardening.  The 
lower  grades  do  not  need  such  large  beds,  and  where  space 
is  limited  they  may  work  on  a  bed  as  a  class  or  by  groups. 
The  children  are  to  do  the  work  of  surveying,  as  it  gives 
them  good  practice  in  practical  arithmetic  and  measurement. 
Let  them  represent  in  a  plan  the  whole  school  garden  and 
their  particular  portion.  Then  have  them  take  the  class  gar- 
den and  divide  it  up  among  the  children  of  their  class  who 
are  to  do  the  work.  The  garden,  if  all  in  one  piece  and  large, 
should  have  a  walk  all  around,  from  two  to  five  feet  wide, 
and  also  walks  of  about  the  same  width  between  the  rows 
of  beds.  The  individual  beds  should  preferably  run  east  and 
west,  and  be  planted  with  crosswise  rows,  to  give  the  best 
distribution  of  light.  The  beds  should  be  oblong  rather 
than  square.  Make  them  four  or  five  feet  wide  and  as  long 
as  space  will  allow.  The  individual  beds  should  be  sep- 
arated by  walks  about  eighteen  inches  wide.  Long  and 
narrow  beds  permit  of  easy  weeding  and  hoeing  from  the 
paths.  The  class  garden,  and  individual  or  group  beds, 
should  be  well  marked  with  stout  stakes  at  the  corners. 
Use  a  tape-measure  and  marking-line ,  and  be  careful  about  get- 
ting the  lines  straight  and  square.  Later,  after  the  seeds  are 
selected,  let  each  pupil  plan  and  mark  off  his  own  bed.  The 
beds  should  be  named  or  numbered  on  one  of  the  posts. 
The  little  children  will  need  a  good  deal  of  help  in  this,  and 
even  the  older  ones  will  need  watching  to  see  that  they  follow 
directions.  A  garden  note-book  for  writing  the  various 
directions  for  work  would  be  useful.  Be  very  specific  in 
giving  directions. 


BBBBBB 
BBBBS 


FIG.  100.    Plan  oi  School  Garden,  92  x  132  feet.    Group  Beds  for  First  Three  Years  and 

Kindergarten. 

Forty-eight  individual  beds  for  Grade  IV  ;  forty-eight  for  Grade  V  ;  forty-eight  for  Grade  VI ;  forty- 
two  for  Grade  VII ;  and  several  general  experimental  or  ornamental  beds.  Where  space  is  sufficient  the 
individual  beds  may  be  entirely  surrounded  by  paths,  and  both  beds  and  paths  may  be  larger.  Much 
smaller  beds  will  not  be  profitable  as  individual  plots.  In  smaller  quarters  some  of  the  paths  may  be 

268 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN    *  269 

TOOLS:  The  school  should  furnish  good  stout  tools  for 
the  garden  work.  These  should  include  several  light  spad- 
ing forks,  several  shovels,  a  number  of  ten  or  twelve  tooth 
rakes,  a  set  of  medium  hoes,  hand  weeders,  hatchets,  marking 
cord,  measuring  tape,  watering  pots,  etc.  These  should  be 
well  cleaned  after  using,  and  hung  systematically  in  a  dry 
place. 

SELECTING  AND  BUYING  SEED:  Early  in  March,  or  even 
in  February,  make  the  selection  of  seeds.  You  will  want  to 
start  some  in  the  house  early,  and  the  order  may  be  delayed. 
Let  the  children  make  the  selection  generally,  but  see  that 
they  do  not  select  seeds  not  suited  to  the  purpose  or  to  their 
ability.  Large  seeds  are  best  for  the  lower  grades,  and 
the  more  rapid  and  hardy  growers  should  be  selected  for 
them.  Send  for  seed  catalogues.  The  magazines  and  fam- 
ily journals  will  have  numerous  advertisements  of  seed 
houses  in  their  columns.  Read  up  in  books  on  garden- 
ing. A  number  of  magazines  and  farm  journals  usually 
have  garden  notes,.  Let  the  children  have  these  catalogues, 
etc.,  to  look  at. 

It  would  be  better  and  simpler  for  the  lower  grades  at 
least  to  make  a  uniform  selection.  Seeds  may  be  bought 
at  club  rates  for  about  a  cent  per  package,  or  they  may  be 
purchased  in  bulk  and  distributed  in  school.  The  latter  is 
probably  the  better  way  with  small  classes,  when  each  child 
needs  only  a  few  seeds.  The  children  should  pay  for  them, 
unless  there  is  a  school  fund  upon  which  to  draw  for 

sacrificed  by  bringing  the  beds  together  at  the  ends.  By  placing  the  beds  of  Grades  VI  and  VII  in  line 
with  the  rest,  a  long,  narrow' garden  may  be  made,  better  adapted  to  the  edge  of  the  school  grounds. 
Whatever  the  shape  or  size  of  the  garden  a  unit  bed  should  be  adopted.  In  this  garden  the  bed  is  five 
feet  wide  and  varies  in  length  with  the  grad^.  A  bed  of  this  width  can  be  easily  weeded  or  hoed  from 
the  sides.  The  rows  should  run  across  the  btds.  In  this  garden  the  rows  run  north  and  south,  which 
distributes  the  light  best  in  the  rows  of  plants.  In  the  double  beds  it  is  well,  for  looks,  to  have  the 
plantings  of  the  two  beds  match,  as  shown  in  lowest  row,  Grade  V,  the  taller  plants  being  in  the  middle. 


270  NATURE-STUDY 

the  money.  Well-equipped  schools  with  large  gardens 
should  furnish  the  money  for  the  seeds.  As  a  rule,  seeds  for 
home  growing  should  be  purchased  by  the  children  them- 
selves. In  many  cities  there  are  associations  or  social  settle- 
ment societies  that  sell  the  seeds  to  the  children  practically 
at  cost.  The  local  civic  improvement  society  may  be  induced 
to  undertake  such  assistance.  Such  work  is  done  notably 
by  the  Cleveland  Home  Gardening  Association,  and  also  by 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society.  On  application 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  sends  out  gratis 
to  schools  a  limited  number  of  flower  and  vegetable  seeds. 
A  useful  bulletin  on  gardening  also  accompanies  them. 
Order  early,  and  state  definitely  the  kinds  and  the  quantity 
of  seeds  wanted.  (See  directions  for  different  grades  under 
Gardening  in  the  Course  of  Study.) 

PLANNING  THE  PLANTING  :  Let  each  pupil  or  group  arrange 
the  planting  of  the  individual  or  group  bed.  Make  a  plan 
on  paper.  A  uniform  plan  should  be  required.  The  size 
of  the  plant  and  the  light  conditions  must  be  taken  into 
account.  The  flowers  should  be  planted  in  the  front,  ex- 
cept the  very  tall  ones,  which  should  be  placed  in  the 
rear  of  the  lower  or,  at  any  rate,,  on  the  north  side,  so  as  not 
to  cut  off  the  light  from  the  rest.  Tall  sunflowers,  holly- 
hocks, corn,  etc.,  and  vines,  should  be  planted  against  the 
fence  or  building,  if  the  garden  is  there.  The  rows  should  be 
at  least  wide  enough  to  allow  hoeing,  and  a  foot  apart  would 
not  be  too  much  for  the  average.  The  larger  plants,  such 
as  tomatoes,  cabbages,  and  running  vines  must  have  pro- 
portionate room.  If  planted  between  rows  of  the  early 
maturing  kinds  of  vegetables,  they  may  be  given  more  room 
later  by  pulling  up  the  others. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN    *  271 

PROGRAMME  :  There  is  less  confusion  and  fewer  tools  are 
needed  if  the  classes  work  at  different  hours  or  on  different 
days.  A  schedule  of  work  should  be  arranged.  Much  of 
the  gardening  can  be  done  after  school  or  on  Saturdays. 

PLANTING  TIME:  Get  the  soil  ready  about  the  last  of 
April,  and  procure  the  seeds  early,  <  -^,, 
but  do  not  be  in  a  hurry  about  plant- 
ing. In  general,  seeds  should  not  be 
planted  till  about  apple  blossom,  or 
corn  planting  time.  Seeds  for  the  fall 
flowers  and  vegetables  really  need  not 
be  planted  till  later.  Unfortunately 
school  will  close  before  the  plants  are 
in  flower  or  the  vegetables  large  enough 
to  eat.  Candytuft  and  sweet  alyssum 
possibly  will  be  just  beginning  to  flower, 
and  lettuce  and  radish  to  be  avail-  —&*  „.„.*.»..+  . 

FIG.  101.    Plan  of  Individual 

able.     For   spring    returns    one    will     Garden  where   the  ROWS 

have     tO     depend     Upon    bulbs,     peren-        have  to  Run  East  and  West. 

nials,  and  flowering  shrubs.  It  will  be  a  great  deal  better  to 
plant  for  autumn  returns  in  the  school  garden,  unless  the 
work  is  to  be  continued  as  a  vacation  school.  The  usual 
school  garden  will  be  the  most  useful  for  nature-study  pur- 
poses and  look  the  prettiest  in  the  fall.  So  do  not  be  in  a 
hurry  to  plant,  but  wait  till  the  frosts  are  well  over.  For 
early  results  it  is  customary  to  use  sweet  peas,  garden  peas, 
poppies,  lettuce,  radish,  and  onions  as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked,  even  before  frosts  are  over.  These  are  hardy. 
Sweet  peas  planted  late,  however,  will  bloom  longer  in  the 
fall  than  those  planted  early,  and  these  early  ones  will  be  in 
flower  by  the  time  school  closes  for  summer.  Sometimes 


272  NATURE-STUDY 

by  forcing  seedlings  in  the  house,  cold-frame,  or  hot-bed, 
some  flowers,  etc.,  may  be  had  by  the  close  of  school. 

For  home  and  vacation  gardens  early  varieties  should  be 
chosen  as  well  as  late,  so  as  to  furnish  flowers  and  vegetables 
all  through  the  season.  By  successive  plantings  at  intervals 
of  several  weeks  several  crops  can  be  had. 

How  TO  PLANT  AND  Sow:  If  the  directions  for  sowing 
are  not  upon  seed  packets  for  each  pupil,  give  yery  careful 
instructions.  The  soil  should  be  well  pulverized.  Lines 
should  be  drawn  straight  across  the  bed,  and  furrows 
made  with  the  hand  or  the  end  of  the  hoe  or  rake  handle. 
Do  not  make  the  furrows  too  deep.  Seeds  may  be  buried 
so  deep  that  they  cannot  reach  the  surface.  In  general, 
they  should  be  planted  at  a  depth  equal  to  about  three  or 
four  times  their  thickness.  Peas  should  be  covered  extra 
deep,  three  or  four  inches.  But  the  very  small  seed  should 
be  simply  sown  on  the  surface  and  lightly  sifted  over 
with  fine  soil,  or  washed  in  with  a  very  fine  spray  of  water. 
This  applies  to  such  seeds  as  petunia,  portulaca,  and  poppy. 
Many  seeds  are  benefited  by  a  preliminary  soaking  over 
night  to  hasten  their  germination.  It  is  also  a  good  thing 
to  firm  the  soil  or  press  it  tightly  about  the  seeds.  After 
they  are  planted  they  need  to  be  kept  moist  till  they  have 
sprouted  and  have  made  a  good  start.  Seeds  will  not  ger- 
minate in  dry  soil,  so  water  regularly  and  thoroughly. 
Do  not  sow  too  thickly,  but  fairly  thin  and  evenly.  Where 
a  few  plants  only  are  to  be  desired  in  a  row  or  hill,  it  is  well 
to  put  in  a  few  extra  seeds  to  make  up  for  those  that  will  not 
germinate.  They  can  be  thinned  out  later  if  not  needed. 
Beware  of  old  seeds.  Some  seeds  will  germinate  when  several 
years  old,  but  most  of  them  lose  their  vitality  rapidly  after  the 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN      *  273 

first  year.  It  is  not  necessary  to  plant  all  the  seeds  at  one 
time.  The  less  hardy  ones  should  be  sown  later.  Mark  each 
row  with  a  wooden  peg  on  which  the  name  of  the  plant  sown 
is  written.  This  will  also  help  to  tell  where  the  last  seeds 
were  planted. 

CULTIVATION:  Each  pupil  or  group  in  charge  of  a  bed 
should  be  held  responsible  for  its  care.  Weeds  need  to  be 
constantly  pulled  or  hoed.  Hoe  in  the  walk  and  pull  in  the 
rows.  Teach  the  children  to  distinguish  weeds  from  the 
plants  cultivated.  Give  lessons  on  weeding  and  hoeing. 
It  is  best  to  hoe  weeds  on  hot  dry  days,  for  then  they  will  not 
be  so  apt  to  strike  root  again,  but  will  dry  up.  Weeding  by 
hand  should  be  done  when  the  soil  is  damp,  for  then  the  roots 
of  the  weeds  pull  better.  Make  studies  of  the  common 
weeds  as  they  appear.  Teach  how  to  recognize  them  in  the 
early  stages,  and  describe  their  appearance  later,  the  harm 
they  do,  and  the  best  way  to  get  rid  of  them.  Hoeing  or 
loosening  the  soil  with  the  rake  or  hand  weeder  is  necessary 
even  if  there  are  no  weeds,  for  this  breaks  up  the  hard  crust 
of  earth  and  pulverizes  it  so  that  it  retains  the  soil  moisture 
better.  It  acts  as  a  kind  of  mulch  and  helps  the  roots  in 
penetrating  the  soil.  After  several  years  of  good  cultivation 
the  weeds  will  not  be  so  abundant,  especially  if  commercial 
fertilizer  is  used.  Manure  that  is  not  well  rotted  is  apt  to 
contain  many  weed  seeds. 

WATERING:  This  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  seeds 
sprout,  but  later  it  is  not  so  necessary.  In  very  dry 
periods  it  should  be  done  thoroughly.  A  little  thin  sprink- 
ling on  very  dry  soil  does  no  good,  and  simply  helps  to  cake 
the  surface.  Put  on  plenty  of  water  to  thoroughly  drench 
the  soil.  It  is  better  done  at  evening,  for  then  the  sun 


274  NATURE-STUDY 

does  not  harden  the  surface  so  much,  and  the  change  of 
temperature  is  not  so  harmful  to  the  plants.  Watering  is 
needed  more  in  sandy  and  porous  earth.  Loosening  the  soil 
by  frequent  tillage  is  often  better  than  watering.  That  is 
what  is  meant  by  "watering  with  a  hoe  or  a  rake."  A 
mulch  is  thus  formed  that  keeps  in  the  moisture. 

CARE  DURING  VACATION:  This  is  the  most  serious  prob- 
lem with  our  American  school  gardens.  Our  summer 
vacations  are  so  long  that  there  is  great  danger  that  the 
garden  will  perish  from  neglect.  An  effort  should  be  made 
to  get  some  one  to  look  after  it  once  in  a  while  during  the 
summer.  The  janitor  of  the  school  often  takes  pride  in 
the  garden,  the  lawn  beds  or  borders,  and  will  see  that  they 
are  kept  in  condition.  Often  children  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  school  may  be  got  to  take  care  of  the  garden  during 
the  summer.  They  should  be  given  the  flowers  and  summer 
crops  as  a  reward.  Yet  I  have  seen  country  school  gardens 
doing  fairly  well  and  looking  pretty  during  the  summer 
months,  when  they  were  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  A  last 
thorough  weeding  may  be  given  at  the  close  of  school,  and 
then,  if  the  summer  is  not  too  dry  and  hot,  the  garden  will 
come  out  in  a  fairly  good  condition  after  all.  Of  course  it 
will  be  overgrown  with  weeds,  and  the  plants  will  sprawl 
over  each  other  for  lack  of  training;  yet  by  carefully  pulling 
up  or  hoeing  between  the  rows,  and  by  cutting  out  with 
shears  the  weeds  in  the  rows,  pruning  the  plants,  tying  to 
stakes,  and  other  "sprucing  up"  the  garden  will  still  be 
very  presentable,  and  be  very  useful  in  furnishing  bouquets, 
etc.,  for  the  school.  In  fact,  a  neglected  garden  may  be 
made  to  furnish  some  excellent  lessons  in  the  study  of  weeds, 
overcrowding,  insect  effects,  etc.  So  I  would  urge  the 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN      *  275 

attempt  to  make  a  garden,  even  where  the  conditions  for  the 
summer  are  unpromising.  Our  field  crops  generally  have 
to  get  along  without  watering  in  the  worst  of  droughts,  and 
the  grains  cannot  be  cultivated.  Even  so  a  school  garden 
can  worry  through  the  summer.  In  case  no  special  care 
can  be  given  through  the  vacation,  only  the  hardiest  plants 
should  be  planted. 

STARTING  SEEDS  INDOORS:  Time  can  be  saved  and 
flowers  and  vegetables  obtained  earlier  by  starting  seeds  in 
the  house,  cold-frame,  or  hot-bed.  But  though  the  seeds 
are  planted  two  months  earlier  than  those  sown  outdoors, 
the  flowers  will  not  appear  that  much  earlier,  perhaps  only 
half  as  much  earlier.  The  checking  on  transplanting  to  a 
cooler  atmosphere  usually  retards  the  growth  somewhat. 

Pansies,  asters,  nasturtiums,  lettuce,  cabbage,  cucumber, 
tomato,  etc.,  are  thus  started  early  in  March.  Sow  the  seed 
in  shallow  boxes  of  earth,  grape  baskets,  etc.  Keep  moist  at 
first  by  covering  with  a  glass  pane,  and  keep  in  a  warm 
place  till  germinated.  After  that  give  plenty  of  light  and 
not  too  much  warmth,  else  the  seedlings  will  grow  spindling 
and  weak.  On  mild  days  set  outside  on  the  window  ledge 
or  elsewhere,  in  order  to  make  the  plants  grow  stockier  and 
healthier.  When -they  have  formed  several  leaves,  not  seed 
leaves,  they  should  be  pricked  out  and  replanted  several 
inches  apart  in  new  boxes  or  flats.  This  will  give  them  more 
room  and  develop  a  better  root  system.  If  set  outside  in 
daytime  do  not  forget  to  take  them  in  at  night. 

COLD-FRAME  :  In  many  respects  a  cold-frame  is  more  con- 
venient than  the  indoor  method  of  starting  seeds,  especially 
where  many  are  grown.  A  cold-frame  is  made  by  constructing 
a  rectangular  box  or  frame,  setting  it  in  the  earth,  or  banking 


276  NATURE-STUDY 

it  up  well,  and  covering  it  with  a  glass  roof.  An  unused 
storm  window  may  be  used  for  this.  By  that  time  storm 
windows  will  not  be  needed  on  all  the  windows,  and  one 
can  be  taken  from  the  school.  Plant  seeds  in  the  frame 
about  the  first  week  in  March  or  later.  Keep  the  soil 
well  moistened.  The  sun's  heat  is  kept  in  the  frame  and 
forces  the  seedlings.  At  night  it  may  be  necessary  at  first 
to  put  an  extra  covering  over  the  frame.  Later,  on  warm 
days,  the  window  roof  should  be  raised  and  the  air  allowed 
to  enter.  Still  later  the  window  may  be  taken  off  during  the 
day  and  replaced  at  night  or  on  cool  days.  Plants  raised 
here  are  more  hardy  and  healthy  than  those  started  indoors. 
If  too  thick  they  should  be  pricked  out  and  transplanted 
to  another  frame.  The  plants  started  earlier  indoors  may 
be  taken  up  and  set  in  the  cold-frame. 

HOT-BED:  This  resembles  a  cold-frame,  only  it  is  deeper 
and  has  a  thick  foundation  of  about  two  feet  of  fresh  horse 
manure,  under  the  growing  soil  of  about  four  or  five  inches. 
It  is  covered  with  glass.  The  purpose  of  the  manure  is  to 
produce  an  artificial  heat  by  its  decay  or  fermentation. 
The  box  may  be  set  deeply  into  the  ground,  or  raised  and 
banked  up  with  manure.  At  first  the  temperature  may  be 
too  warm  for  sowing,  but  after  a  few  days,  when  the  average 
temperature  is  about  80  degrees,  the  seeds  may  be  sown  or 
the  seedlings  transplanted  to  it.  A  thermometer  should  be 
hung  in  the  hot-bed,  and  when  it  registers  more  than  the 
above  temperature,  the  glass  should  be  raised  more  or  less  to 
ventilate.  As  the  hot-bed  requires  considerable  care  and 
judgment,  it  is  not  advisable  to  let  the  little  children  grow 
plants  in  it.  Plants  raised  in  a  hot-bed  often  suffer  a  severe 
setback  in  their  development,  unless  very  carefully  hard- 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


277 


ened  by  proper  ventilation  or  gradual  transplanting  to  cold- 
frames.  But  for  forcing  early  vegetables  and  flowers  the  hot- 
bed is  very  useful.  Hot-beds  and  cold-frames  should  be 
placed  in  sunny  situations,  on  the  south  side  of  houses  or 
walls.  Start  a  hot-bed  in  the  middle  of  February  or  in 
March. 

TRANSPLANTING:  When  the  danger  of  frosts  is  over, 
seedlings  of  flowers,  lettuce,  cabbage,  tomato,  etc.,  started 
indoors  or  in  frames,  should  be  transplanted  to  the  garden 
beds.  Transplanting  should  be  done,  if  possible,  on  a  cloudy 
day  or  toward  evening.  Dig  up  carefully  a  seedling  with 
a  good  cluster  of  roots  damaged  as  little  as  possible.  Do 
not  shake  off  the  earth  on  the  roots,  and  do  not  pull  the 
seedling  up.  Place  it  in  the  ground  at  the  same  depth  as  it 
grew  before.  Press  the  soil  tightly  around  the  roots  and 
water  well.  If  necessary,  protect  from  wilting  by  sticking 
in  shingles  on  the  south  side,  or  set  a  board  on  edge  along 
the  south  side  of  a  row,  or  flat  on  pegs  over  the  row,  if 
north  and  south.  A  cloth  shade  on  sticks,  or  even  a  news- 
paper pegged  down  over  the  plants,  will  answer  for  a  few 
days  till  they  recover  from  the  shock. 

Some  kinds  of  plants,  such  as  the  morning-glory  and 
cucumber,  do  not  bear  transplanting  well.  They  may  be 
started  in  berry-boxes  lined  with  paper,  and  the  boxes 
may  be  gently  broken  away  and  the  plants  set  into  the 
ground  without  injury. 

It  would  be  well  to  put  a  few  of  the  late  flowering  plants, 
such  as  chrysanthemum  and  salvia,  and  the  late  maturing 
plants,  such  as  cotton,  into  pots,  pails,  or  boxes  that  could  be 
taken  up  when  cold  weather  comes,  so  that  the  plants  may 
continue  to  grow  in  the  house.  Such  vessels  can  be  sunk  in 


278  NATURE-STUDY 

the  ground.  Geraniums,  begonias,  and  fuchsias  also  should 
be  left  in  the  pot,  but  sunk. 

THINNING  OUT:  It  is  a  great  temptation  to  let  all  the 
plants  stand  that  come  up.  This,  however,  should  not  be 
allowed  if  they  grow  thickly,  for  they  will  not  all  mature., 
and  none  of  them  may  attain  a  normal  size.  Thinning 
out  should  be  done  relentlessly.  Consider  the  size  of 
the  adult  plant  and  thin  out  to  accommodate  that.  This 
does  not  mean  necessarily  that  the  pulled  plants  must  be 
wasted.  If  carefully  pulled  or,  better,  pricked  out,  they 
may  be  given  away  to  those  who  have  none,  or  they 
may  be  stuck  in  out-of-the-way  places,  and  used  for  replac- 
ing such  as  may  have  met  with  accident  in  the  main  beds. 
As  a  ri&e,  let  the  largest  and  best-developed  plants  stand, 

EXPERIMENTAL  BEDS:  In  large  gardens  considerable 
experimental  culture  may  be  carried  on:  Certain  varieties 
of  grain,  vegetables,  or  flowers  may  thus  be  tried.  Sugar  beet 
cultivation  may  be  demonstrated,  and  the  method  of  im- 
proving corn  by  selection  also  shown.  The  beneficial  effect 
on  the  soil  where  alfalfa,  and  other  legumes  have  been  grown 
may  be  demonstrated,  or  different  methods  of  fertilizing  may 
be  tried.  Such  experimental  plots  should  be  set  aside  for 
general  care,  and  be  placed  outside  the  individual  bed  area. 
Likewise  a  bed  or  space  should  be  devoted  to  a  tree  nursery, 
and  a  small  fruit  patch  should  be  set  aside. 

FRUIT  GARDEN:  Where  space  is  available  let  an  orchard 
and  a  vineyard  be  planted.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
these  would  be  very  interesting  and  useful  parts  of  the  gar- 
den and  campus. 

ORNAMENTAL  BEDS:  Where  a  garden  is  cultivated  for 
the  practical  lessons  of  planting,  etc.,  attention  should  also 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  279 

be  given  to  the  beautification  of  the  school  grounds  with 
flower  beds,  borders,  etc.  These  should  be  filled  with 
bedding  plants  and  left  largely  to  the  care  of  the  pupils, 
different  groups  taking  care  of  different  beds.  Such  beds 
require  changing  of  the  plants  when  the  first  lot  have 
finished  flowering.  In  the  fall,  bulbs  should  be  set  for  early 
spring  flowering.  They  make  a  most  beautiful  effect  when 
placed  rightly.  After  these  have  withered  they  should  be 
taken  up,  or  later  flowering  plants  should  be  set  among  the 
bulbs.  Sometimes  it  is  more  advisable  to  plant  foliage  plants 
that  are  not  conspicuous  for  their  flowers,  but  produce  ele- 
gant effects  with  their  beautiful  large  leaves.  Place  such 
beds  around  the  edges  of  the  grounds,  along  the  walks,  in 
angles  of  the  buildings,  along  fences,  etc.  A  very  good 
place  for  border  beds  is  in  front  of  shrubbery.  In  such  beds 
it  is  well  to  take  into  consideration  color  schemes.  The 
proper  colors  should  be  placed  beside  each  other,  comple- 
mentary colors,  as  a  rule,  setting  each  other  off  to  advantage. 
Often  it  is  better  to  have  the  beds  just  one  color— white,  pink, 
or  yellow.  This  is  better  than  having  a  great  variety  of  colors. 
Low  spreading  plants  like  sweet  alyssum,  verbena,  and  portu- 
laca  are  good  for  borders  along  the  walks,  and  in  front  rows 
of  beds  or  borders  along  shrubbery  or  fences.  Behind  them 
should  come  the  taller  forms  in  succession.  In  such  borders 
it  would  be  well  to  select  the  plants  so  that  some  of  them 
would  be  in  blossom  all  summer.  Plants  that  have  with- 
ered or  are  through  flowering  should  be  removed  or  cut 
off.  It  is  generally  better  for  plants  to  have  the  flowers 
picked,  for  if  allowed  to  go  to  seed  they  will  stop  blooming 
sooner.  This  applies  especially  to  sweet  peas,  nasturtiums, 
and  pansies.  A  few  of  the  best  developed  of  the  earlier 


280 


NATURE-STUDY 


flowers  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  These,  when  ripe, 
should  be  collected  by  the  children  and  saved  for  next  year. 
This  is  an  important  part  of  the  gardening  work,  much 
neglected  in  the  home  garden  and  at  school.  (See  also 
Chapter  XVIII  on  the  beautification  of  grounds.  For  lists 
of  bedding  plants  see  page  296.) 

BULBS  FOR  OUTDOOR  CULTURE:    The  gorgeousness  and 
beauty  of  spring  bulbs  make  them  very  desirable  in  school 


FIG.  102.    Bulb  Diagram  for  Outdoor  Planting. 

gardens.  While  the  garden  is  being  prepared  and  the  chil- 
dren are  waiting  for  the  seeds  to  come  up,  they  will  be  de- 
lighted and  encouraged  by  the  growth  and  flowering  of 
these  beautiful  bulbs.  They  are  so  easy  to  raise  that  every 
kindergarten  ought  to  cultivate  them.  Tulips  are  the  best, 
as  a  general  thing,  and  there  are  many  different  patterns 
and  colors  of  them.  Crocus,  daffodils,  hyacinths,  and  Ger- 
man iris  are  also  excellent.  It  is  best  to  set  the  bulbs  in 
September  or  October,  and  when  the  frosts  begin,  to  cover 
them  with  a  mulch  of  straw  or  leaves  for  the  winter.  The 
beds  should  be  either  raised  or  well-drained  with  broken 


THE  SCHOOL   GARDEN  281 

tile,  bricks,  etc.,  before  filling  with  rich  loam.  In  the  spring 
the  litter  should  be  nearly  all  removed,  and  when  the  leaves 
come  up  the  rest  should  be  taken  away.  The  bulbs  should  be 
set  at  depths  indicated  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  The 
children  will  delight  in  the  fall  planting,  and  will  be  looking  for 
the  flowers  in  the  spring.  Bulb  beds  require  no  more  care  than 
here  mentioned.  Tulip  bulbs  may  be  left  in  the  bed  for  flower- 
ing in  other  years,  or  they  are  sometimes  taken  up  when 
the  leaves  have  withered,  and  their  places  filled  with  summer- 
flowering  geraniums,  foliage  plants,  etc.  They  are  stored 
in  not  too  dry  a  place,  and  planted  again  in  the  fall.  If  left 
in  the  ground,  small-rooted  plants  like  pansies,  portulaca, 
alyssum,  etc.,  may  be  sown  or  planted  among  the  bulbs. 

For  summer  flowering  the  gladiolus,  canna,  and  dahlia 
may  be  planted.  Their  bulbs  or  roots,  however,  are  tender, 
and  must  be  taken  up  for  the  winter.  The  gladioli  and  the 
large  cannas  are  very  showy.  The  dahlias  are  excellent 
border  plants,  and  bloom  into  the  fall. 

PERENNIALS,  SHRUBS,  VINES,  ORNAMENTAL  TREES: 
(See  Chapter  XVIII,  "  Beautification  of  School  Grounds." 
Also  see  lists  of  plants  for  this  purpose,  page  296.)  The  plant- 
ing of  these  is  often  about  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  in 
the  way  of  school  gardening  except  the  window-box  garden- 
ing. Many  a  school  ground  could  be  beautified  by  the 
planting  of  these  easily  grown  plants,  which,  once  established, 
require  no  further  attention  than  a  little  training,  trimming, 
and  perhaps  winter  covering.  As  a  rule,  they  should  be 
planted  with  some  idea  of  the  requirements  of  landscape 
gardening.  Never  let  them  encroach  upon  the  playgrounds. 
They  may  be  safely  planted  along  fences,  boundaries,  build- 
ings, and  in  the  corners  of  the  grounds.  Here  they  will  be 


282  NATURE-STUDY 

less  molested  and  trampled,  and  will  look  better.  They 
should  be  selected  so  that  some  of  them  will  be  in  flower  at 
different  times  throughout  the  season. 

In  this  list  may  be  placed  many  autumn  wild  flowers. 
Clumps  of  goldenrod,  wild  asters,  coneflowers,  etc.,  are  very 
ornamental  and  appropriate  in  our  gardens. 

WILD  FLOWER  GARDEN:  (See  list,  page  297.)  The  wild 
flowers  can  give  as  great  pleasure  as  the  more  aristocratic 
and  costly  cultivated  kinds.  In  shady  situations,  on  the 
north  side  of  houses  or  fences,  wild  flowers  may  be  grown 
where  most  of  the  cultivated  kinds  cannot.  To  do  well 
they  need,  however,  rich  wood  soil,  and  a  mulching  of  leaves 
or  straw  in  the  winter.  Bring  them  in  from  the  collecting 
trips.  They  make  a  very  useful  botanical  garden  for  lessons 
on  plants. 

FERNERY:  A  plant  need  not  have  flowers  to  be  called 
beautiful.  Every  one  would  class  the  ferns  with  the  beauti- 
ful plants.  Their  lacy  fronds,  curious  crozier  buds,  woodsy 
fragrance,  and  somewhat  tropical  effects  make  them  ad- 
mirable for  decorative  borders.  They  will  grow  in  shady 
or  damp  places  where  other  plants  will  not.  Get  ferns 
from  the  woods  and  cliffs,  in  the  dryer  situations.  Dig  up 
with  abundant  roots  the  underground  stems  of  the  bracken 
fern,  ostrich  and  cinnamon  fern,  cliff  brake,  and  the  maiden- 
hair. Place  them  in  a  deep  bed  of  rich  wood  soil,  with  pieces 
of  decaying  logs,  sawdust,  peat,  etc.,  well  mixed  with  the  soil. 
It  is  well  to  dig  deep  first,  and  provide  drainage  with  broken 
brick,  tile,  cans,  etc.  Ferns  look  very  well  around  the 
school  entrance,  in  corners,  and  among  shrubbery.  In  the 
fall  they  need  some  protecting  litter,  such  as  wood  soil  or 
leaves. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  283 

ROCKERY  AND  BIRDS'  TROUGH  :  In  some  far  corner  of  the 
grounds,  where  the  birds  are  more  apt  to  come,  build  a 
mound  of  dirt,  set  boulders  and  rocks  in  the  surface,  place  a 
drinking  trough  on  it  for  birds,  and  plant  with  ferns,  wild 
flowers,  vines,  nasturtiums,  etc.  A  more  permanent  struct- 
ure may  be  made  with  rocks  and  cement,  perhaps  provided 
with  a  water  pipe  for  a  fountain.  Potted  plants  could  be 
set  about  it,  or  put  into  pockets  left  for  the  purpose.  In 
many  places  wild  birds  would  be  attracted  to  it,  to  the  de- 
light of  the  children. 

GREENHOUSE  WORK:  A  few  schools  may  be  so  fortunate 
as  to  possess  a  real  greenhouse.  In  that  case  the  following 
suggestions  can  be  carried  out  more  completely.  But  even 
where  no  such  conveniences  exist  much  can  be  done. 
The  window  garden  can  be  utilized  for  such  work,  or 
a  small  outside  or  inside  bay-window  may  be  constructed 
of  sash  and  used  as  a  miniature  greenhouse. 

POTTING  SOIL:  For  most  purposes  the  following  mixture 
will  do, — loam,  manure  (or  wood  mould),  sand — equal  parts. 

FERTILIZER:  Manure,  commercial  fertilizer,  or  bone  ash 
may  be  stirred  into  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants  in  pots 
and  boxes.  Watering  once  a  week  with  liquid  manure  is 
also  good  for  stimulating  plants. 

POTTING:  Do  not  use  too  large  a  pot  for  flowers,  and 
allow  about  an  inch  all  around  the  root  mass  of  the  plant. 
Put  some  stones  or  broken  pot  in  the  bottom  for  drainage. 
If  in  cans,  punch  holes  in  the  bottom.  The  plant  should 
not  be  set  deeper  or  higher  than  it  grew  before.  Do  not  fill 
the  pot  completely,  but  leave  space  for  watering. 

REPOTTING:  This  is  necessary  when  the  roots  of  the 
plant  have  covered  the  mass  of  soil  inside  the  pot  with  a 


284  NATURE-STUDY 

felt  of  fine  roots.  Before  they  turn  dark  the  plant  should 
be  transferred  to  a  pot  an  inch  larger.  Tip  the  pot,  hold 
the  hand  over  the  earth,  and  slightly  tap  the  edge  of  the  pot 
against  a  table  to  loosen  it.  Put  into  a  new  pot  as  directed 
above,  removing  some  of  the  old  soil  from  the  top  and  margin. 

WATERING:  Do  not  water  except  when  the  plant  needs 
it.  Then  give  a  good  soaking.  But  do  not  allow  the  soil  to 
remain  soggy  all  the  time,  for  that  injures  most  plants.  The 
roots  need  air  as  well  as  water.  The  soil  should  be  moist, 
but  not  soaking. 

TURN  THE  PLANTS  to  make  them  grow  symmetrically, 
else  they  will  develop  mainly  on  the  side  toward  the  light. 
Do  not  crowd  the  plants  in  a  window  so  that  they  cut  off 
each  other's  light. 

WINDOW-BOXES:  These  should  be  not  less  than  eight 
inches  deep,  about  the  same  in  width,  and  as  long  as  the 
window  permits.  Put  drain  holes  in  the  bottom.  A  metal 
tray  to  catch  the  moisture  would  protect  the  sill.  Oilcloth, 
however,  will  do  as  well,  if  the  box  is  raised  slightly  on  strips 
of  wood  placed  under  it  to  allow  the  moisture  to  dry.  The 
boxes  should  be  well  made.  They  may  be  made  of  galvan- 
ized iron,  or  more  cheaply  of  wood.  They  should  be  painted 
to  prevent  warping  as  well  as  for  looks.  Use  the  potting  soil 
given  above. 

These  window-boxes  may  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
To  a  certain  extent  the  principles  of  gardening  can  be  taught 
with  them.  Germination  studies,  soil  studies,  starting  of 
plants  for  the  outdoor  garden,  experiments  on  plant  be- 
havior, planting  of  tree  seeds  and  pits,  the  propagation  of 
plants  by  slips,  layering,  and  grafting — all  these  things  can 
be  demonstrated  in  the  little  window  gardens. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


285 


Where  the  school  building  is  heated  so  that  the  plants  will 
not  freeze  at  night  or  during  holidays,  this  indoor  garden- 
ing can  be  done  in  the  winter.  Otherwise  it  will  have  to  be 
deferred  till  later  in  spring.  Aside  from  the  above  practical 
uses  of  the  window-box  it  may  be  used  for  growing  plants 


FIG.  103.    Plants  Growing  in  the  Laboratory  Above  an  Aquarium. 

for  decoration  and  pleasure.  It  is  always  a  pretty  sight  to 
see  potted  and  window-box  plants  in  a  school-room.  It 
looks  cheerful  and  home-like.  Even  these  plants  can  be 
utilized  in  many  nature  lessons. 

During  the  summer  the  box  should  be  filled  with  plants, 
set  on  the  outside  window  ledge,  and  placed  in  charge 
of  the  janitor.  The  plants  will  need  frequent  and  thor- 
ough watering,  as  their  soil  depth  is  not  great.  (For  in- 


286  NATURE-STUDY 

door  plants  for  pots  and  boxes  as  well  as  for  outdoor 
boxes  see  list,  page  297.)  The  plants  should  be  selected 
according  to  the  light  conditions.  Rooms  on  the  north 
side  must  necessarily  confine  themselves  to  such  plants  as 
will  flourish  in  the  shade.  It  is  generally  out  of  the  ques- 
tion to  try  to  raise  flowers  on  the  north  side.  A  gera- 
nium would  probably  starve  there,  and  would  certainly  not 
flower.  I  would  suggest  that,  if  flowers  are  desired,  boxes 
be  placed  on  the  south  side  till  the  flowers  appear,  and 
then  that  they  be  transferred  to  the  north  room.  There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  foliage  plants  that  do  fairly  well  on 
the  shady  side,  and  these  are  given  in  the  list  on  page  297. 
To  my  mind  a  window  with  flourishing  ferns,  begonias, 
periwinkle,  'and  wandering  Jew  is  just  as  beautiful  as  a  box 
of  flowering  geraniums.  Aquaria  with  goldfish  will  give  a 
touch  of  color,  if  placed  among  these  shade-loving  flowers. 

The  boxes  should  be  set  with  a  variety  of  plants, 
drooping  kinds  in  front,  climbing  vines  to  train  up  the  win- 
dow at  the  ends,  taller  plants  in  the  centre.  Some  set  the 
plants  in  the  pots  into  the  box  and  fill  the  space  between 
them  with  moss  or  earth.  This  permits  the  turning  of 
the  plants.  In  dusty  schools  the  leaves  will  need  washing 
often.  Sometimes,  if  started  in  midwinter,  annuals  like 
pansies,  petunias,  portulaca,  nasturtium,  and  sweet  peas  can 
be  brought  to  flower  in  March  or  April. 

BULBS:  It  is  always  a  pleasure  to  raise  bulbs  indoors. 
To  do  this  plant  them  so  that  their  tops  are  about  an  inch 
below  the  surface.  Plant  them  any  time  from  September 
to  January.  Set  them  aside  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  such  as 
a  cellar  or  dark  attic.  Water  them  well  at  first,  and  after  that 
enough  to  keep  them  from  drying  out  below.  Leave  for  three 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN      '  287 

or  four  weeks  for  the  roots  to  form.  When  these  have  been 
well  developed,  bring  the  pots  or  box  to  the  light  into  a 
warmer  room.  When  the  tops  appear,  give  plenty  of  light  and 
water.  They  will  now  grow  rapidly  and  soon  blossom. 
Tulips,  narcissuses,  crocuses,  hyacinths,  freesias,  etc.,  are 
good  for  such  culture. 

CUTTINGS:  Plants  for  summer  bedding  in  'the  borders 
may  be  started  from  slips  or  cuttings  made  in  winter.  The 
best  flowering  geraniums  are  those  started  early  in  the  winter 
from  cuttings.  To  make  cuttings  select  such  parts  as  break 
with  a  snap,  and  cut  pieces  with  about  two  joints.  Trim  off 
large  leaves  or  cut  off  half  the  blade  to  reduce  evaporation, 
set  into  clean,  sharp  sand  in  shallow  boxes,  and  keep  the  soil 
moist  and  warm.  When  the  cutting  has  made  sufficient 
roots,  in  about  four  or  six  weeks,  it  may  be  taken  from  the 
tray  and  potted.  Coleus,  fuchsia,  carnations,  and  many 
other  plants  can  thus  be  propagated.  Begonia  leaves  cut 
into  pieces,  and  partly  covered  with  soil  will  form  new  plants 
readily.  An  interesting  experiment  is  to  take  a  large  leaf  of 
a  bryophyllum  plant  and  hang  it  up,  preferably  in  a  moist, 
dark  place.  The  leaf  will  form  numerous  buds  around  the 
margin,  which  may  be  cut  out  and  planted.  Cutting  a 
potato  into  pieces  for  planting  is  similar  to  making  slips. 
The  pieces  should  have  one  or  two  eyes. 

Roses  also  may  be  grown  from  cuttings.  The  best  wood 
for  such  is  taken  from  just  below  a  flower.  Cut  the  wood 
into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  buds. 

Willows,  lilacs,  grapes,  and  many  berry  shrubs  are  grown 
from  cuttings  made  of  twigs,  in  the  dormant  condition  in  fall 
or  winter.  Cut  the  twigs  into  lengths  of  from  8  to  1 2  inches, 
each  with  several  buds  or  joints.  They  should  then  be 


288  NATURE-STUDY 

buried  in  a  cellar  or  some  other  place  in  well-drained  sand 
or  soil,  and  the  cuts  allowed  to  heal.  The  next  spring  they 
may  be  planted  where  wanted  permanently,  or  first  set  in 
temporary  rows.  Set  vertically  or  slanting,  so  that  only  the 
upper  bud  projects.  Choose  well-seasoned  wood  for  such 
cuttings.  Many  such  cuttings  may  be  had  for  nothing  in  the 
fall  pruning  of  vineyards  or  berry  gardens.  Raspberry, 
blackberry,  woodbine,  ivy,  etc.,  may  be  grown  from  root 
cuttings  in  a  similar  manner. 

LAYERING  is  similar  to  cutting,  except  that  the  branches 
are  first  left  attached  to  the  parent  plant,  but  are 
fastened  down  to  the  ground  and  covered  with  soil  at  cer- 
tain joints.  At  these  places  roots  form,  and,  when  well 
established,  the  layer  may  be  severed  from  the  parent  and 
planted  independently.  Carnations,  and  other  house-plants 
may  be  treated  thus,  also  currants,  gooseberries,  raspberries, 
etc.,  grape,  and  woodbine.  These  should  be  layered  in  the 
nursery  or  berry  patch.  Roses  also  may  be  propagated 
in  this  way.  Many  plants,  notably  the  strawberry,  form 
runners  for  a  similar  purpose.  Practise  the  setting  of 
strawberries  developed  from  runners. 

GRAFTING:  Akin  to  the  above  methods  of  propagation  is 
grafting,  by  which  a  stem  or  bud  called  the  scion  is  made  to 
grow  on  a  root  or  a  stem  of  another  plant  called  the  stock. 
The  latter  is  usually  a  more  hardy  grower  than  the  scion, 
while  the  scion  is  of  a  choicer  quality.  Twigs  or  buds  from 
a  very  desirable  fruit  tree,  such  as  the  navel  orange,  may  be 
set  on  a  wild  variety,  or  on  one  inferior  in  fruit  but  very  hardy. 
This  is  extensively  practised  by  fruit  raisers  for  propa- 
gating the  best  varieties  of  fruit.  The  seed  of  these  fruits 
cannot  be  depended  upon  to  come  true,  hence  the  im- 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


289 


-£> 


portance  of  grafting.  There  are  many  different  forms  of 
grafting.  Several  of  the  more  common  methods  are  given. 
ROOT  GRAFTING:  This  consists  of  growing  choice  scion 
stems  or  twigs  upon  hardy 
roots.  The  stocks  are 
usually  grown  from  seeds, 
and  may  be  those  raised 
in  the  school  nursery  or 
may  be  bought  at  slight 
expense.  The  scions  are 
cut  in  the  dormant  state  in 
midwinter,  and  kept  in 
sand  in  a  cool  and  moist 
place  till  grafting  time, 
usually  in  March  or 
April.  Let  the  children 
bring  twigs  from  choice 
kinds  of  apples.  Cut 
pieces  several  inches  in 
length  with  three  or  four 
buds.  When  ready  to 
graft,  clean  the  scions  and 
stock.  Cut  pieces  of  root 
six  or  eight  inches  long, 
and  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  stock  of 
the  apple  must  be  about  two  years  old.  The  twigs  of  the  scion 
should  be  from  well-seasoned  wood  of  the  last  season's  growth. 
With  a  sharp  knife  cut  the  top  of  the  root  and  the  lower  end 
of  the  scion  at  the  same  slant.  Select  stocks  and  scions  of  the 
same  diameter  if  possible.  Cut  out  a  thin  wedge  from  each 


FIG.  104.    Grafting  Methods. 

A.  Tongue-grafting. 

1.  Stock  and  scion  separate. 

2.  United. 

3.  Bound  with  grafting-cloth. 

B.  Plain  whip-grafting. 

C.  Saddle-grafting. 


29o  NATURE-STUDY 

surface,  and  press  the  scion  firmly  into  the  stock,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  inner  bark  of  the  two  must  fit  together. 
This  is  known  as  the  tongue  graft.  Other  methods  are 
suggested  in  the  other  figures,  and  may  be  tried.  The  two 
pieces  should  now  be  bound  tightly  together.  For  this  use 
ribbons  of  cheese-cloth  or  muslin,  made  by  covering  with  a 
melted  mixture  of  four  parts  common  resin  and  one  part 
beef  tallow.  When  cool,  roll  the  grafting  cloth,  as  it  is  called, 
into  the  roll  and  use  as  desired.  This  cloth  should  be  used 
in  strips  about  half  an  inch  wide.  Wind  it  spirally  around 
the  graft  to  hold  the  two  parts  firmly  in  place.  The  cuts  at 
the  end  of  the  scion  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax, 
made  of  four  parts  resin,  two  parts  beeswax,  and  one  part 
tallow.  When  cool  pull  like  taffy  till  of  a  buff  color.  Form 
into  sticks.  The  grafted  plants  should  then  be  set  away  in 
cool,  damp  sand,  in  a  cellar  or  elsewhere,  to  lie  dormant  till 
spring,  when  they  are  to  be  set  out  in  the  nursery. 

Twigs  on  trees  or  shrubs  may  be  grafted  in  a  similar 
manner.  Thus  we  may  make  different  kinds  of  apples, 
and  even  pears  and  other  related  species  grow  on  the 
same  tree. 

Technically  the  grafting  of  a  bud  on  a  stock  is  called 
BUDDING.  It  is  done  in  summer  or  early  in  September,  when 
the  bark  will  still  peel  easily.  Twigs  from  the  desirable 
trees  are  cut,  and  from  these  the  buds  are  cut  off  with  a  thin 
shield  of  bark  and  a  little  wood.  Remove  the  leaf  that  is 
beside  the  bud.  Make  a  longitudinal  slit  in  the  bark  of  the 
stock  seedling  on  the  north  side,  and  cut  across  its  top  a  hori- 
zontal slit.  Peel  back  the  bark  slightly,  enough  to  allow  the 
insertion  of  the  shield  of  the  bud.  Push  the  bud  in  and 
press  back  the  bark  of  the  stock  over  it,  leaving  the  bud 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 


291 


slightly  exposed.  Tie  with  soft  twine  or  raffia  to  hold  the 
bud  in  place.  After  about  two  weeks  the  bud  will  be  at- 
tached, and  the  binding  should  be  cut  to  prevent  the  stran- 
gling of  the  stock.  In  the  next  season,  when  the  bud  has  be- 


FIG.  105.    Budding. 


A.  Bud-stick  with  buds. 

B.  Buds  cut  out  of  stick. 

C  i.  Bark  of  stock  slit  open. 


C  2.  Bud  partly  inserted  under  bark  of  stock. 

3.  Bark  of  stock  tied  over  bud. 

4.  Stock  cut  off  after  bud  has  grown. 


gun  to  develop,  cut  off  the  stock  just  above  the  inserted  bud, 
so  as  to  give  this  all  the  nourishment,  and  to  prevent  the 
other  variety  from  forming  branches  and  fruit.  Cover  the 
cut  with  wax.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  stock  does  not 
send  out  branches  or  suckers  below  the  graft.  If  any  form 
they  should  be  removed.  Peach,  apple,  pear  trees  and  roses 
are  thus  budded. 


292  NATURE-STUDY 

Pupils  will  find  grafting  very  interesting  work.  They 
should  be  encouraged  to  continue  to  practise  it  at  home. 

COMPETITIVE  CULTURE:  It  is  an  interesting  experiment 
to  have  the  children  cultivate  plants  at  home  to  see  who  can 
raise  the  finest.  In  lower  grades  this  competition  may  be  in 
flowers  and  simple  vegetables.  In  the  upper  grades,  especially 
in  the  rural  villages  and  schools,  this  might  be  made  very 
practical.  Here  the  boys,  especially,  could  select  seeds  of  the 
best  sort,  and  try  different  methods  of  cultivation  or  fertilizing 
special  crops,  etc.  A  very  practical  thing  would  be  to  raise 
corn  or  sugar-beets  in  competition.  In  such  competitive  cult- 
ure it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  children  should  have  no 
assistance  from  parents  or  any  one  else.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  seeds,  bulbs,  or  slips  may  be  given  to  each,  along 
with  specific  directions  for  planting  and  for  the  care  of  the 
plants.  Then  let  each  child  be  held  responsible  for  their  cult- 
ure. Of  course  there  will  be  many  failures,  yet  even  from 
these  sometimes  valuable  lessons  may  be  learned,  if  not  in 
plant  culture,  perhaps  in  self-culture — persistency,  regularity, 
forethought,  etc.  In  some  cities  there  are  public  societies 
that  further  such  work  by  furnishing  the  seeds  or  giving  prizes. 

The  different  schools  in  the  town  might  join  in  a  com- 
petition for  the  best  general  school  garden,  or  the  best  borders, 
or  window-boxes,  or  the  best  arrangement  of  the  shrubs, 
beds,  etc.  Of  course  this  will  not  mean  much  to  the  chil- 
dren if  the  work  is  done  by  the  teachers,  the  janitor,  or  some 
hired  gardener.  It  should  represent  the  efforts  of  the  pupils 
of  the  school.  Then  they  will  take  more  interest  and  pride 
in  the  work,  and  will  look  after  it  more.  Committees  should 
be  appointed  to  visit  the  various  schools  at  different  times 
in  the  season  to  adjudge  the  reward. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  293 

Connected  with  this  is  the  matter  of  EXHIBITS  of  the  gar- 
den products  and  related  work.  Soon  after  school  begins 
in  the  fall  let  there  be  a  fair  or  exhibition  of  the  plants  raised 
at  home  in  competitive  culture.  Have  the  vegetables  of 
the  school  garden  neatly  displayed.  Have  bouquets  of 
flowers  from  the  school  garden  artistically  arranged.  Util- 
ize the  window-boxes  and  the  potted  plants  for  ornamental 
effects.  Other  nature  work  might  be  displayed  at  the  same 
time — art  work  based  on  nature-study,  written  work,  note- 
books, charts,  etc.  Also  have  collections  of  weeds  from  the 
garden,  with  descriptions  and  remedies,  herbaria  of  flowers, 
insect  collections,  to  show  economic  relations,  life  histories 
of  insects,  cages  with  insects,  etc.  The  patrons  of  the 
school  would  be  much  interested  in  all  this.  Show  them 
what  has  been  done  in  the  garden.  Write  up  the  event  in 
the  papers,  take  photographs  of  the  exhibit  and  also  of  the 
garden,  etc.  All  these  things  encourage  the  children,  and 
serve  to  interest  the  public  in  the  work  of  the  school. 

I  suggest  that  the  older  grades  be  allowed  to  exhibit  some 
of  their  garden  and  horticultural  work  at  the  county  fair 
with  exhibitors'  privileges. 

INTEREST  IN  AGRICULTURE  may  be  aroused  in  the  older 
children  by  letting  them  read  books,  journals,  etc.,  on  the 
subject.  We  have  now  many  good  books  on  elementary 
agriculture.  Put  these  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils.  A 
good  garden  or  farm  journal  would  be  a  useful  addition  to 
the  school  periodical  list.  The  farmers'  bulletins  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  should  be  utilized  in  this 
work.  Encourage  the  boys  to  send  for  them,  and  get  the 
bulletins  from  the  State  Agricultural  Schools  and  Experiment 
Stations,  and  the  catalogues  from  these  institutions  and  from 


294  NATURE-STUDY 

the  County  Industrial  Schools.  Many  a  boy  should  be  en- 
couraged to  go  to  such  a  school,  The  older  pupils  should 
visit  such  schools  if  near,  and  also  attend  some  of  the  ses- 
sions of  local  farmers'  institutes.  In  this  way  the  pupils 
are  shown  the  possibilities  of  farming,  and  also  the  advan- 
tages of  farm  life. 

BOOKS  ON  GARDENING:  Seed  and  nursery  catalogues,  which 
may  be  had  free  from  any  seed  house  or  nursery,  are  full  of 
specific  cultural  directions  for  the  different  plants,  and  also 
contain  much  general  information  about  insecticides,  fun- 
gicides, etc.  Some  of  the  popular  family  and  farm  journals 
have  useful  suggestions  for  gardening.  Some  of  the  best 
books  on  gardening  will  be  found  in  the  reference  list 
in  the  Appendix,  page  517. 

INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES:  A  complete  list  of  these 
need  not  be  given  here.  Various  eed  houses  have  special 
commercial  preparations  for  different  insects,  rusts,  etc.,  but 
the  following  are  among  the  most  universally  useful : 

CUT-WORMS  are  very  troublesome  in  the  spring  when  the 
plants  are  young  and  tender.  Tomato,  cabbage,  sweet 
peas,  etc.,  are  bitten  off  near  the  ground,  and  drawn  into  the 
burrows  by  the  worms.  To  kill  them  place  a  spoonful  of 
poisoned  bran  at  the  base  of  the  plant  and  among  the  rows. 
This  is  a  bait  the  worms  will  generally  eat,  especially  if 
placed  there  before  the  plants  are  up  or  are  set  out,  and  there 
is  nothing  else  to  eat.  If  the  plants  are  few,  then  a  stiff 
paper  collar  may  be  pinned  around  the  base  of  the  plant  and 
set  somewhat  into  the  soil.  The  worms  cannot  climb  over 
this.  Toads  placed  in  the  garden  are  useful  friends  of  the 
gardener.  Let  the  children  bring  in  the  toads  they  find  and 
liberate  them  in  the  garden. 


THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN  295 

FOR  LEAF-EATING  INSECTS — apply  with  a  sprayer : 

i  ounce  of  Paris  green  dissolved  in  six  gallons  of  water. 
FOR  SAP-SUCKING  INSECTS — apply  with  a  sprayer: 
Make  a  mixture — called  emulsion — of  the  following: 

2  gallons  kerosene, 

i  pound  of  hard  soap, 

i  gallon  water. 

FOR  RUSTS,  ROTS  AND  BLIGHTS — PLANT  DISEASES: 

i  pound  of  unslacked  lime, 
i  Yz  pounds  of  copper  sulphate. 

Dissolve  each  separately  in  about  six  gallons  of  water.  Use  wooden 
pails.  Mix  thoroughly  and  apply  with  a  sprayer. 

This  may  also  be  made  an  insecticide  by  adding  to  the  mixture  about 
two  ounces  of  Paris  green. 

Plant  Lists  jor  Different  Purposes 
VEGETABLES,  etc.,  suitable  for  the  school  garden: 

(Those  marked  *  are  easy  for  the  little  ones.) 

FOR  SPRING:     Lettuce,*  radish,*  onion  sets.* 

FOR  SUMMER:  Peas,*  beans,*  beets,*  turnip,*  sweet  corn,* 
cucumber,  muskmelon,  watermelon,  tomato,  egg-plant,  early  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  carrot,*  onion,  late  lettuce,  pepper,  grains,*  cotton,  flax,* 
sugar-beet,  sorghum,*  potato.* 

FOR  AUTUMN:  Field  corn,*  pop-corn,*  pumpkin,*  squash,  sweet- 
potato,  celery,  tomato,  pepper,  cabbage  (late),  carrot,  beets*  '(late), 
turnips*  (late),  onion,  parsnip,  sugar-beet,  peanut,  cotton  (plant  some 
in  pots). 

ANNUAL  FLOWERS: 

(Those  marked  *  are  easy  to  grow  for  the  little  children.) 
SPRING  FLOWERING:    Sweet  alyssum,*  candytuft,*  bachelor's  but- 
ton.*   Must  be  started  early. 

SUMMER  FLOWERING-  Pansy,  balsam,*  portulaca,*  sweet  alyssum,* 
candytuft,*  bachelor's  button,*  morning-glory,*  California  poppy,* 
sweet  pea,*  petunia,*  mignonette,  amaranth,  pink,*  poppy,*  stock, 
scabiosa,  castor  bean,*  calliopsis  (or  coreopsis),*  single  and  double 


296  NATURE-STUDY 

sunflower,*  scarlet  runner,*  cosmos,*  verbena,*  nasturtium,*  salvia, 
four  o'clock,  prince's  feather,  calendula  (pot  marigold),*  African  or 
French  marigold,*  phlox,*  canary-bird  vine,  nicotiana,*  wild  cucum- 
ber,* zinnia,*  early  aster. 

AUTUMN  FLOWERING:  Pot  marigold,*  zinnia,*  cosmos,*  nas- 
turtium,* marigold,*  verbena,*  nicotiana,*  calliopsis,*  chrysanthe- 
mum (in  pots  set  in  ground),  mignonette,  castor  bean,*  cosmos,* 
prince's  feather,  scarlet  runner,*  sweet  pea,*  salvia*  (plant  some  in 
pots),  aster,  stock,  pansy,  petunia,*  canary-bird  vine,  morning- 
glory,*  larkspur,*  kochia  (mock  cypress). 

GOOD  FOR  BEDDING: 

(Spring  flowering  marked  s;  summer  flowering  not  marked;  autumn,  a.) 

ANNUALS:  Balsam,  stock,  petunias,  zinnia  a,  aster  a,  pansy, 
nasturtium,  verbena  a,  poppy,  California  poppy,  pink,  phlox, 
salvia  a,  portulaca,  candytuft,  sweet  alyssum,  calendula  a,  castor 
bean,  kochia  a  (mock  cypress),  marigold  a. 

BIENNIALS  AND  PERENNIALS  :  Hollyhock,  phlox,  larkspur,  peony  s, 
golden  glow,  tulip  s,  crocus  s,  hyacinth  s,  daffodil  s,  lily  of  the  valley  6, 
German  iris  s,  day  lily,  Oriental  poppy.  The  following  must  be 
taken  up  for  the  winter:  Geranium,  fuchsia,  begonia,  canna,  dahlia  a, 
gladiolus. 

FOLIAGE  BEDS:     Castor  bean,  caladium,  coleus. 

PERENNIALS  : 

SPRING  FLOWERING:  Tulip,  crocus,  German  iris,  lily  of  the  valley, 
bleeding-heart,  columbine,  peony. 

SUMMER  FLOWERING:  Larkspur,  phlox,  golden  glow,  feverfew, 
Shasta  daisy,  white  day  lily,  yellow  day  lily,  grass  lily,  tiger  lily, 
perennial  poppy,  clematis,  honeysuckle,  foxglove. 

AUTUMN  FLOWERING:  Yucca,  dahlia,  wild  aster,  wild  sunflower, 
wild  cone  flower,  golden  rod,  blazing  star. 

Must  be  taken  up  for  winter:  Geranium,  begonia,  fuchsia,  canna, 
dahlia. 

VINES  : 

ANNUAL:  Wild  cucumber,  morning-glory,  scarlet-runner,  canary- 
bird  vine,  nasturtium,  sweet  pea,  ipomea. 


THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN  297 

BIENNIAL:    Allegheny  vine. 

PERENNIAL:  Clematis,  virgin's-bower,  hop,  honeysuckle,  wistaria, 
bittersweet,  wild  grape,  woodbine,  Boston  ivy,  green  brier,  moonseed, 
English  ivy  where  hardy. 

WILD  FLOWER  GARDEN: 

(Those  that  grow  in  the  shade  marked  *.) 

SPRING  FLOWERING:  Dandelion,  blood-root,*  trillium,*  spring 
beauty,  bellwort,*  violet,*  columbine,*  Jack-in-the-pulpit,*  dog- 
tooth violet,  Dutchmen's  breeches,* .  wild  phlox,*  false  Solomon's 
seal,*  waterleaf,*  lady's-slipper,*  wind-flower,*  hepatica,*  pasque 
flower,  fleabane,  puccoon. 

SUMMER  FLOWERING:  Pitcher  plant,*  red  lily,  virgin's  bower,  wild 
cucumber,  daisy,  aralia,*  Solomon's  seal,*  yarrow,  thimble  anemone, 
catnip,  horsemint,  butterfly  weed,  milkweed,  iris,  harebell,  bellflower, 
lobelia. 

FALL  FLOWERING:  Wild  sunflower,  cone  flower,  compass  plant,  cup 
plant,  aster,*  goldenrod,  blazing  star,  monkey  flower,*  eupatory,*  mul- 
lein, evening  primrose,  fireweed  (epilobiumj^emp,  butter-and-eggs. 

PLANTS  FOR  WINDOW-BOXES  AND  POTS: 

INDOOR: 

SHADY  WINDOWS:  Mainly  foliage  plants — begonia,  dracaena,  palm, 
wandering  Jew,  asparagus  "fern,"  true  fern  (Boston),  vinca  vine, 
English  ivy,  coleus. 

SUNNY  WINDOWS:  Geranium,  fuchsia,  bulbs,  salvia,  pansy,  chrys- 
anthemum, sweet  alyssum,  primrose,  azalea,  carnation,  marguerite, 
petunia,  cineraria,  palm,  English  ivy,  asparagus  "fern,"  heliotrope, 
smilax,  Kenil worth  ivy,  feverfew,  ageratum,  coleus,  vinca,  umbrella 
plant,  Boston  fern,,  cactus,  century  plant,  camellia,  rose-scented  ger- 
anium, bryophyllum,  oxalis,  India-rubber  plant,  abutilon,  calla, 
Easter  lily. 

OUTSIDE:  Only  the  more  hardy  of  the  above  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 

SHADY  SIDE:    As  above. 

SUNNY  SIDE:  Geranium,  ageratum,  feverfew,  coleus,  salvia,  sweet 
alyssum,  marguerite,  petunia,  palm,  asparagus  "fern,"  fuchsia,  pansy, 
chrysanthemum,  tulip,  crocus,  vinca,  wandering  Jew. 


298  NATURE-STUDY 

SHRUBS  : 

SPRING  FLOWERING:  Forsythia,  lilac,  snowball,  syringa,  flowering 
currant,  hawthorn,  rose  (including  wild),  mock  orange,  mountain 
laurel,  rhododendron,  currant,  raspberry,  blackberry,  gooseberry, 
barberry. 

SUMMER  FLOWERING:  Bush  honeysuckle,  weigelia,  privet,  wild  elder, 
rose,  sumach,  dogwood,  spiraea. 

FOR  AUTUMN:  Hydrangea,  barberry  in  fruit,  elder  (red  berried)  in 
fruit,  witch-hazel. 

WINTER  EVERGREENS:     Juniper,  holly,  rhododendron,  balsam  fir. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
LESSONS  WITH   PLANTS 

THESE  lessons  are  intended  to  acquaint  the  child  with 
the  life  and  nature  of  plants,  with  the  conditions  under  which 
they  grow,  and  with  the  functions  of  the  various  organs. 
The  plants  should  be  studied  as  living  creatures,  not  merely 
as  dead  specimens.  There  is  a  practical  side  to  this  study, 
as  it  should  teach  the  child  how  to  cultivate  plants. 

Plant  lessons  are  easy  to  give.  Plants  are  clean  and 
not  repugnant.  There  is  an  element  of  beauty  in  the  work 
that  appeals  to  children,  and  this  fact  should  be  taken 
advantage  of.  There  is  an  abundance  of  illustrative  mate- 
rial, easily  obtained,  which  changes  with  the  seasons. 

Many  of  these  lessons  should  be  given  or  applied  in  the 
school  garden,  where  much  material  may  be  obtained.  In 
fact,  the  garden  should  be  a  sort  of  botanical  laboratory  for 
this  work.  Therefore  read  the  suggestions  in  the  previous 
chapter. 

Germination 

It  is  a  traditional  custom  in  nearly  all  schools  to  plant 
seeds  in  the  spring  and  to  see  them  grow.  Generally  this 
is  not  very  profitable  as  usually  conducted.  The  planting 
of  seeds  and  the  observation  of  their  development  may  be 
made  to  teach  valuable  lessons  in  gardening  and  the  con- 


3°° 


NATURE-STUDY 


ditions  for  plant  life.     Most  people  love  flowers  and  would 
like  to  know  how  to  raise  them. 

These  germination  lessons  may  be  utilized  to  teach  the 
children  how  to  prepare  the  soil,  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  the 
proper  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  necessary  for 
germination  and  growth.  Older  pupils  should  try  some 
instructive  experiments.  Let  them  compare  seedlings  grown 
in  cold  and  warm  temperatures,  with  sufficient,  too  much, 


FIG.  106.     Germinators  for  Observing  Seeds  and  Seedlings. 

and  too  little  water;  in  fertile  and  sterile  soil;  in  loam,  sand, 
clay,  and  mixtures  of  these. 

Most  people  are  apt  to  plant  seeds  too  deep.  They  can 
be  buried  so  deep  that  the  seedlings  will  fail  to  reach  the  sur- 
face. 

Very  small  seed,  such  as  petunia,  should  be  lightly  sprinkled 
over  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  kept  moist.  Some  very  fine 
soil  may  be  sifted  over  thinly.  Larger  seeds  may  be  planted 
deeper,  from  three  to  four  times  their  thickness.  If  started 
in  boxes  they  will  germinate  better  by  keeping  a  pane  of 
glass  over  the  box  till  the  seeds  are  up,  when  the  glass  should 
be  removed.  Be  sure  to  get  fresh  seed. 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


301 


Plant  corn,  wheat,  peas,  beans,  sunflowers,  squash,  radish, 
etc.  These  germinate  well,  and  the  plants  from  them  can 
be  used  for  many  observations  and  experiments  on  plant 
life  and  behavior.  Also  let  the  pupils  sow  flower  seeds 
and  raise  plants  that  they  will  care  to  keep. 
In  this  way  pretty  window-boxes  of  flowers 
can  be  raised,  or  the  seedlings  may  later  be 
set  out  in  beds.  Let  the  pupils  take  home 
the  plants  started  in  school.  Encourage  the 
cultivation  of  a  vegetable  garden  and  flowers 
at  home.  Sweet  alyssum,  candytuft,  portu- 
laca,  dwarf  and  climbing  nasturtiums, 
phlox,  pansies,  pot-marigold,  zinnias,  and 
asters  are  excellent  plants  for  the  purpose. 
Morning-glories  cannot  be  transplanted  well, 
and  should  be  raised  where  wanted.  If  the 
boys  feel  that  flower  culture  is  too  effeminate 
for  them,  which  is  not  the  case,  however, 
rouse  their  interest  by  getting  them  to  plant 
vegetables,  and  plants  like  cotton,  flax, 
tobacco,  peanuts,  and  others  not  so  com- 
monly seen.  Also  let  them  plant  the  seeds  of  apples, 
plums,  cherries,  oranges,  and  lemons,  and  other  fruit 
trees;  of  acorns,  butternuts,  walnuts,  and  other  nuts; 
of  elms,  maples,  basswood,  pines,  balsams,  etc.  These 
tree  seedlings  might  be  distributed  to  the  children  to 
plant  at  home.  If  they  raise  any  of  these  to  maturity 
they  will  always  take  a  peculiar  pride  and  interest  in 
these  trees.  A  cherry  tree  planted  as  a  seed  by  a  boy  six 
years  old  will  yield  bushels  of  cherries  by  the  time  he  is  a 
man. 


FIG.  107.    An  Oak 
Seedling. 


302 


NATURE-STUDY 


A 

**g 


The  older  children  should  make  a  simple  dissection  of 
the  seed  and  learn  the  function  of  seed  coats,  seed  leaves, 
rootlet,  and  bud.  They  should  understand  that  seeds  are 
young  plants  given  a  store  of  food  as  a  start  in  life  by  the 
mother  plant.  They  should  compare  the  sprouting  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  seeds,  and  note  the  inter- 
esting ways  in  which  a  seedling  gets 
out  of  the  seed  coat. 

The  germination  of  seeds  can  be  very 

^^v  Jk  7  we^  seen  *n  sPec*al  vessels  f°r  the  Pur~ 

•jr .  pose,  called  germinators.     A  simple  form 

consists  of  a  deep  and  narrow  box  with 
glass  sides.  Fill  with  soil  or  sawdust 
and  place  the  seeds  close  to  the  glass. 
Darken  the  sides  with  opaque  paper. 
After  a  time  the  paper  may  be  removed 
and  the  sprouting  seeds  may  be  seen. 
Another  form  consists  of  two  sheets  of 
glass,  with  cotton  between  them.  A 
black  paper  or  cloth  over  the  cotton  sets 
the  seeds  off  well.  Keep  the  cotton  moist. 
A  simple  germinator  is  made  of  a  tum- 
bler treated  in  a  similar  manner.  A 
very  pretty  way  to  show  the  germination 
of  small  seeds,  such  as  radish,  etc.,  is  to  place  a  piece  of 
flannel  or  blotter  in  a  saucer.  Place  the  seeds  upon  this,  and 
cover  with  a  tumbler,  slightly  raised  at  one  side  to  admit 
air.  Keep  the  blotter  moist  and  the  seeds  will  soon  show 
the  cotyledons  and  the  root,  the  latter  all  covered  with  a 
glistening  fuzz  of  root-hairs  by  means  of  which  the  root  ab- 
sorbs moisture. 


FIG.  108.     An  Experiment. 

One  of  the  bean  seedlings  has 
its  cotyledons  removed  and 
does  not  grow  as  fast  as  the 
other. 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


3°3 


Plant  Organs 

The  principal  organs  of  a  higher  plant  should  be  studied 
in  order  that  children  may  get  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
structure  and  functions  of  a  plant,  and  that  they  may  know 
how  it  lives.  Only  the  gross  structure  need  be  studied 
in  nature-study,  but  attention  should 
not  be  confined  to  structure  simply;  the 
adaptations  and  the  functions  of  the 
structure  should  also  be  taught. 

The  root  is  the  organ  of  absorption 
and  anchors  the  plant  firmly  in  the  soil. 
The  little  root  hairs  that  may  be  seen 
on  seedlings  germinated  on  a  blotter 
are  the  essential  organs  in  absorbing 
the  soluble  minerals  and  the  water  and 
organic  matter  from  the  soil.  These 
root  hairs  should  be  examined  with  a 
microscope.  They  are  seen  then  to  be 
prolongations  of  the  epidermal  cells  of 
the  root.  They  are  very  delicate,  and 
are  torn  off 'when  a  plant  is  pulled  up  Fic.  109.  Germinating  Com. 
from  the  ground  and  hence  not  seen. 

Let  the  children  dig  up  carefully  different  plants  and  note 
the  extent  of  the  root  growth,  the  shape  of  the  roots,  and 
their  branching.  In  a  grain  field  pull  up  a  hill  of  grain  and 
note  the  root  extent.  Then  dig  a  hole  or  trench  and  wash 
away  the  earth  from  the  roots,  exposing  them  carefully. 
The  root  extent  is  then  found  to  be  surprisingly  great,  ex- 
tending to  a  depth  of  several  feet  instead  of  only  five  or  six 
inches,  as  simply  pulling  up  the  plant  would  seem  to  in- 


304  NATURE-STUDY 

dicate.  A  similar  experiment  may  be  tried  at  a  road-cut  or 
hillside  cutting,  where  the  roots  of  plants  may  be  exposed 
in  the  same  way.  Tree  roots  may  be  followed  long  dis- 
tances where  they  have  been  exposed  by  erosion.  This 
may  help  to  give  the  children  a  better  idea  of  the  importance 
of  roots.  In  a  general  way  we  may  say  that  the  root  growth 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil  equals  that  of  the  stem  and 
foliage  above. 

Try  this  experiment :  Cut  off  close  to  the  root  the  stem 
of  a  seedling  like  a  squash  or  sunflower  and  note  the  sap 
flowing  up  from  the  root.  This  illustrates  the  power  of  roots 
to  send  up  moisture. 

Fleshy  roots,  such  as  the  beet,  turnip,  carrot,  and  others 
are  devices  of  the  plant  to  tide  over  some  unfavorable  period 
of  cold  or  drought.  The  first  year  the  large  cluster  of  leaves 
produces  a  store  of  food  which  is  placed  in  the  thick  root. 
The  next  year  the  plant  sends  up  rapidly  a  tall  stem  with 
flowers,  and  goes  to  seed.  From  this  habit  the  plant  is 
called  a  biennial.  Sometimes  some  of  these  plants  will 
complete  their  cycle  in  one  season.  Examine  different 
fleshy  roots.  Refer  to  the  supply  of  food  in  the  root  pri- 
marily intended  for  the  plant  itself,  but  which  we  make  use 
of  for  ourselves. 

Plant  some  turnips  or  carrots  and  see  what  they  do.  Note 
the  softening  and  shrivelling  of  the  root  as  the  plant  grows. 
Account  for  this.  Dig  out  the  core  of  a  carrot  or  turnip 
without  injuring  the  crown  of  buds  at  the  top,  so  as  to  form 
a  little  bucket.  Fill  with  water  and  hang  up  in  the  window; 
let  it  develop.  Try  one  with  the  hole  made  in  the  other  end 
and  hung  upside  down. 

Stems  conduct  the  sap  and  hold  the  leaves  and  flowers  up 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS 


305 


to  the  light.  Annual  plants  have  soft  or  herbaceous  stems. 
Perennial  shrubs,  vines,  and  trees  have  hard  and  woody 
stems.  Compare  them.  Cut  across  a  young,  herbaceous 
stem  like  a  cornstalk  and  note  the  thread-like  strands  that 
run  through  it.  These  may  be 
shown  better  by  cutting  through 
the  hard  outer  layer  of  the  stalk 
and  breaking  and  pulling  apart 
the  rest,  when  the  strands  will  ap- 
pear as  threads  projecting  out 
from  the  stalk.  These  strands 
are  found  in  all  stems  and  are 
very  important.  They  consist 
partly  of  strong  cells  that  give 
rigidity  and  strength  to  the  stem, 
and  partly  of  duct-like  or  tubular 
cells  that  allow  the  sap  to  flow 
through  them.  These  strands  of 
strengthening  and  conducting  tis- 
sues are  called,  technically,  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  and  serve  as  a 
sort  of  skeleton  for  the  plant  and  as  its  circulatory  system. 
Some  ducts  convey  sap  up,  while  others  let  it  down  to  the 
root. 

In  plants  that  have  two  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves  in  the 
seed,  as  for  example,  the  pea,  bean,  sunflower,  geranium, 
squash,  box-elder,  lilac,  etc.,  the  fibrovascular  strands  are 
arranged  in  a  ring  around  a  central  pith.  Cut  across  a 
young  sunflower  stem  or  young  lilac  shoot  and  this  can  be 
seen.  Press  the  stem  and  see  the  water  exude  from  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  ring.  Here  are  the  tubular  conducting 


FIG.  no    Fibrovascular  Strands  in 
Plantain  Leaf. 


306  NATURE-STUDY 

ducts.  Outside  of  the  tubular  part  of  the  stem  is  the  bark, 
not  yet  hard  in  young  tree  shoots  and  in  herbaceous  plants. 

In  cornstalks,  lily  stems,  palm  stems,  and  grasses,  the 
strands  are  not  thus  arranged,  but  are  found  distributed 
throughout  the  pithy  substance  of  the  stem. 

If  we  cut  across  a  twig  of  a  tree  that  has  become  woody, 


FIG.  1 1 1 .    Section  of  Corn  Stalk  Showing  Fibrovascular  Bundles. 
(  Photomicrograph.) 

we  shall  see  that  the  woody  part  is  distinct  from  the  bark 
on  the  outside  and  a  pithy  portion  at  the  centre.  In  the 
spring  the  bark  can  be  easily  peeled  from  the  wood.  This 
is  because  there  is  then  a  layer  of  especially  thin-walled  cells 
between  them  which  can  be  easily  torn.  In  making  a  whistle 
of  willow  or  basswood,  boys  beat  upon  the  bark  to  crush  this 
layer  of  cells  and  thus  loosen  the  bark.  It  is  in  this  layer, 
called  the  growing  zone,  that  the  new  growth  in  the  thick- 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


3°7 


ness  of  the  stem  takes  place.  Wood  forms  on  the  inside  and 
new  layers  of  bark  on  the  outside.  As  the  wood  within  gets 
larger,  the  old  bark  coat  becomes  too  small  and  cracks  into 
fissures  or  peels  off  in  layers.  This  is  seen  in  all  old  trees. 
In  each  species  there  is  a  characteristic  mode  of  fissuring 
of  the  bark  by  which 
alone  we  are  often  en- 
abled to  distinguish  the 
tree.  The  plum  and  the 
birch  peel  off  around 
the  stem.  The  soft 
maple  bark  splits  off  in 
long  strips  up  and  down 
the  stem.  In  other 
trees  the  bark  wears 
away  less  conspicuously, 
though  just  as  truly. 

In  sections  of  stems 
or  twigs  of  more  than 
one  year's  growth  there 
is  seen  a  concentric  ar- 
rangement of  the  wood. 
This  is  called  the  annual  rings,  by  which,  as  a  rule,  we  can 
tell  the  age  of  the  stem,  one  ring  being  formed  each  year.  In 
the  spring  the  cells  of  the  new  wood  are  thinner  walled  and 
larger  than  the  cells  formed  in  the  later  growth  of  the  sum- 
mer. Hence  each  spring's  growth  appears  lighter  and  more 
porous  than  the  growth  formed  in  the  preceding  fall. 

Bring  in  pieces  of  firewood  or  go  to  a  sawed-off  tree  and 
determine  the  age  by  counting  the  rings. 

MODIFIED  STEMS  FOR  PROPAGATION:     After  the  typical 


FIG.  112.    The  White  Elm. 


3o8 


NATURE-STUDY 


stem  has  been  studied,  modifications  of  stems  should  be 
considered,  to  show  how  an  organ  may  become  adapted  for 
an  entirely  different  function. 

Strawberry  runners  are  long,  slender  branches  sent  out 
above  the  ground  by  the  plant,  which  radiate  from  it,  strik- 
ing root  and  sending  up 
a  cluster  of  leaves  at  the 
joints.  In  time,  if  left 
naturally,  the  connecting 
runner  would  die  and 
decay  away,  thus  leaving 
a  number  of  separate 
plants  that  at  one  time 
were  all  one.  This  is  a 
device  for  propagation. 
The  gardener  utilizes  this 
artificially  in  obtaining 
new  plants  for  setting 
out. 

The  long,  drooping 
branches  of  currants, 
raspberries,  and  other 
plants  touch  the  ground  with  the  ends  and  strike  root  there, 
thereby  starting  another  plant  by  a  method  similar  to  that 
employed  by  the  strawberry. 

Try  some  simple  experiments  in  layering,  slipping,  and 
grafting.  (See  last  chapter.) 

UNDERGROUND  STEMS:  There  are  other  peculiar  modi- 
fications of  stems  for  the  purpose  of  propagation.  Many 
plants  have  underground  shoots  and  stems  which  help  them 
to  tide  over  a  period  of  cold  or  dryness,  or  by  which  they 


FIG.  113.    The  White  Birch. 


LESSONS   WITH  'PLANTS 


309 


are  multiplied.  One  of  these  is  the  root-stalk,  so  called 
because  it  looks  like  a  root.  Bloodroots,  Solomon's-seal,  many 
common  grasses  and  other  plants  have  such  organs.  In  the 
first  two  mentioned  cases,  the  true  roots  spring  from  a  root- 
stalk  which  is  thick  with  a  supply  of  food.  Common  June 
grass  and  many  other  grasses  have  long,  slender  root-stalks. 


FIG.  114.    Cross  Section  of  White  Elm  Showing  Bark,  Sapwood, 
Heartwood,  and  Yearly  Rings. 

Pull  up  some  June  grass  root-stalks,  examine  the  joints, 
scales,  and  roots,  and  note  the  spears  of  grass  rising  from  the 
joints.  Cut  the  root-stalk  into  as  many  joints  or  sections  as  have 
rooted,  and  plant  each  to  see  if  it  will  grow  independently. 
By  means  of  such  stalks  the  grass  spreads  rapidly.  Golden- 
rod  and  the  cultivated  goldenglow  have  fine  root-stalks. 

The  Jack-in-the-pulpit  has  a  short,  rounded  root-stalk, 
called  a  corm. 


310  NATURE-STUDY 

The  onion  and  lily  bulbs  are  also  modified  stems.  Cut 
an  onion  through  lengthwise,  and  note  the  thickened  leaves 
that  surround  a  kind  of  central  bud,  the  whole  forming  a 
condensed  leafy  bud.  The  scales  on  the  outside  serve  for 
protection,  those  within  to  store  nourishment.  Examine 
also  tulip  and  amaryllis  bulbs.  Raise  some  hyacinth  bulbs 
in  water. 

The  potato  is  another  sort  of  underground  stem,  a  short 


FIG.  115.    Rootstalk  of  Solomon's  Seal,  a  Storehouse  of  Food. 

and  rounded  root-stalk.  The  eyes  represent  buds,  each  of 
which  is  capable  of  sprouting  and  forming  a  new  plant.  Cut 
a  piece  of  potato  containing  only  one  eye,  plant  it,  and  raise 
a  plant.  Set  a  potato  in  a  glass  or  can  of  water  and  note 
the  shoots  that  arise  from  the  eyes.  The  potato  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  water  and  starch.  Show  with  the  iodine 
test  that  it  has  starch.  Show  starch  made  from  potato. 
Examine  some  starch  grains  under  a  microscope.  This 
starch  was  made  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant  and  stored  away 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS  311 

in  the  tubers  or  potatoes.  We  use  this  supply  of  starchy 
food  intended  primarily  for  the  plant.  Similarly  other 
underground  stems  and  bulbs  are  storehouses  for  food. 
This  is  generally  used  the  next  season  in  making  a  rapid 
growth.  Most  of  our  very  early  spring  flowers  are  enabled 
to  bloom  so  early  because  they  have  a  supply  of  food 
ready.  Dig  up  a  number  of  the  earliest  spring  flowers  and 
this  will  be  seen  to  be  true. 

Buds 

One  of  the  first  signs  of  spring  is  the  swelling  of  the  pussy- 
willow's buds.  They  may  be  found  in  wet  meadows  and 
sloughs,  in  company  with  poplars  and  red  osiers.  Let  the 
children  bring  some  to  school.  Set  the  twigs  in  water  and 
watch  them  develop.  These  pussies  are  flower  buds. 

A  little  later  collect  twigs  of  lilac,  cottonwood,  soft  maple, 
boxelder,  and  horse-chestnut  and  place  them  in  water.  Let 
the  children  study  the  changes  from  day  to  day.  First  the 
buds  swell,  then  the  little  brown,  dry  scales  with  which  the 
buds  are  covered  are  pushed  apart  or  entirely  crowded  off, 
and  a  little  bundle  of  delicate  leaves,  or  a  flower  cluster,  or 
both,  appear.  In  a  few  days  more  the  leaf  buds  have  elon- 
gated into  short  stems  with  the  leaflets  arranged  alongside. 
From  such  a  study  it  will  be  seen  clearly  that  a  leaf  bud  or 
a  flower  bud  is  a  condensed  or  miniature  stem  with  leaflets, 
packed  away  in  the  protecting  scales.  In  the  course  of  a 
season,  the  buds  on  young  trees  may  grow  to  the  length  of 
several  feet,  though  the  growth  is  much  less  on  the  older  trees. 

Note  the  bud  scales,  their  thickness,  texture,  stickiness, 
or  hairiness.  They  serve  to  protect  the  buds  from  mechan- 
ical injury  and  prevent  the  drying  out  of  the  tender  leaflets 


NATURE-STUDY 


within  during  the  winter.  Do  not  tell  the  pupils  that  the 
scales  are  warm,  cozy  blankets  or  jackets  that  prevent  the 
freezing  of  the  buds  in  winter,  for  that  is  not  true.  In  weather 
20  below  zero  or  more  these  thin  scales  would  be  scant  pro- 
tection against  freezing.  Ask  the  children  if  they  would 
want  nothing  more  on  in  such  weather.  In  fact  the  buds 

do  freeze  within. 
Providing  the 
freezing,  and  es- 
pecially  the 
thawing  out, 
proceed  slowly, 
a  frozen  ear  will 
not  be  perma- 
nently injured. 
Frozen  apples 
and  potatoes 
can  be  restored 
in  good  condi- 
tion if  thawed  slowly,  but  if  thawed  rapidly  become  flabby 
and  soon  decay.  It  is  somewhat  the  same  with  vegetation 
in  winter.  The  artificial  covering  that  we  put  over  the 
pansy  and  strawberry  beds  in  winter  does  not  prevent  the 
freezing  of  these  plants,  but  it  does  prevent  sudden  freezing 
and  thawing.  The  nonconducting  litter  over  the  plants  per- 
mits these  changes  to  take  place  only  slowly.  So  also  the 
scales  on  the  buds  are  nonconductors  and  serve  a  similar 
purpose.  The  natural  litter  of  leaves  and  grass  protects  many 
seeds,  roots,  and  stems  of  plants  in  winter.  Even  the  snow 
is  a  protective  covering  in  this  sense,  preventing  the  killing 
of  winter  wheat  and  clover  and  many  wild  plants. 


FIG.  116.     Buds  are  Condensed  Branches. 

The  two  upper  twigs  show  young  branches  that  have  come  from  buds  as 
short  as  those  on  the  two  lower  twigs.    Lilac. 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS  313 

Note  the  position  of  the  bud  on  the  branch.  Immediately 
below  it  we  generally  find  a  triangular  scar  or  mark  which 
shows  where  the  last  year's  leaf  has 
fallen  off.  This  is  called  a  leaf  scar. 

Remove  the  bud  scales  all  around  a 
large  bud.  Note  the  circle  or  girdle  of 
scars  that  is  produced  thereby.  This 
is  called  a  girdle  scar.  A  similar  girdle 
forms  naturally  when  a  bud  unfolds 
in  spring  and  the  scales  drop  off,  and 
will  be  found  at  the  very  base  of  the 
shoot  of  that  season.  Begin  at  the 
tip  of  a  twig  and  trace  back  till  you 
come  to  such  a  girdle  scar.  The  in- 
terval from  the  tip  to  the  scar  marks 
a  year's  growth.  Trace  farther  down 
the  twig  and  find  perhaps  other  such 
scars.  In  this  way  the  age  of  a  twig 
or  a  tree  may  be  told.  The  internodes 
between  such  scars  are  often  quite 
long  in  young  trees  or  shoots,  but 
sometimes  half  an  inch  or  less  on  the 
older  parts  of  a  tree. 

Let  the  pupils  gather  different  kinds 
of  twigs  and  draw  them. 

T  FIG.  117.    Cottonwood  and 

leaves  Butternut  Twigs. 

.     ,        ,  Mil  f  (To  show  buds  and  yearly  growth.) 

Ask  the  pupils  what  leaves  are  for. 

Unless  they  have  been  taught  they  will  probably  answer  that 
they  do  not  know.  Some  may  say,  "To  look  pretty,"  "To 
give  us  shade."  Much  older  people  often  can  give  no  better 


314  NATURE-STUDY 

answers.  Though  we  may  find  pleasure  in  the  beauty  of 
the  foliage  and  enjoy  its  shade,  this  is  not  the  reason  why 
plants  have  leaves. 

A  plant  breathes,  perspires,  makes  its  food,  and  also  does 
other  useful  things  with  its  leaves.  Looked  at  in  this  way  a 
leaf  is  a  very  important  organ  to  a  plant. 

While  the  full  meaning  of  a  leaf  cannot  be  made  clear  to 
grade  pupils,  yet  its  general  function  can  be  taught  them  by  a 
few  experiments. 

Plants  wilt  because  they  lose  water  from  their  leaves. 
This  is  called  transpiration.  It  may  be  very  easily  shown 
by  cutting  from  a  geranium  or  other  plant  some  leaves, 
covering  the  cut  end  with  vaseline  or  wax  so  as  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  moisture  through  these  ends,  and  placing  the 
leaves  under  a  tumbler  in  the  sunlight  or  other  warm  place. 
In  a  short  time  drops  of  moisture  given  off  by  the  leaf  will 
be  collecting  on  the  inside  of  the  glass. 

This  water  must  come  out  of  the  leaf  elsewhere  than  from 
the  cut  ends.  It  is  exhaled  as  vapor  from  minute  openings, 
called  breathing  pores,  in  the  skin  or  epidermis  of  the  leaf. 
These  pores  are  visible  readily  under  a  compound  micro- 
scope; and  on  the  leaves  of  the  Wandering  Jew  they  are 
visible  with  a  simple  magnifying  glass.  On  the  common 
liverwort,  marchantia,  though  not  a  leafy  plant,  the  breath- 
ing pores  are  visible  easily  to  the  unaided  eye.  If  speci- 
mens like  these  can  be  got,  the  pores  should  be  shown. 
At  any  rate,  diagrams  should  be  made  giving  a  leaf  in 
cross  section,  to  show  the  loose,  spongy  tissue  of  green 
cells  within  the  leaf,  the  conducting  strands  (veins),  and 
the  breathing  pores.  Show  also  surface  views  of  the 
pores.  Through  these  pores  the  moisture  escapes,  and  when 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS  315 

a  plant  cannot  supply  itself  rapidly  enough  with  fresh  water 
from  the  roots  it  wilts. 

Place  a  cherry,  maple,  or  other  leafy  twig  in  a  bottle  of 
water.  Note  the  height  of  the  water.  Close  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  to  prevent  evaporation.  Note  the  rate  at  which 
the  twig  absorbs  the  water  and  the  leaves  give  it  off  to  the 
air. 

This  current  of  water  flowing  through  the  plant  is  neces- 


FiG.  118.  Transpiration. 

sary,  in  order  that  fresh  mineral  matter  may  be  brought  in 
from  the  soil  for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant. 

Leaves  are  green.  Why?  Bring  in  some  celery  stalks, 
or  some  potato  or  carrot  sprouts  that  have  grown  in  the 
cellar  in  the  dark.  Note  their  blanched  condition.  Lay  a 
board  a  few  days  upon  the  green  grass,  and  on  removal  note 
the  yellowish  or  bleached  place  left  by  the  board.  Note 
that  the  grass  turns  green  again  in  the  sunlight.  Place  some 
of  the  cellar-grown  sprouts  in  the  sunlight  to  grow.  Note 
the  greenish  color  that  appears  after  several  days.  Sunlight 


3i6 


NATURE-STUDY 


is  thus  seen  to  be  a  condition  necessary  for  the  formation  of 

the  green  color  of  plants. 

This  green  color  is  not  due  to  a  green  liquid  in  the  cells 

of  the  plant,  but  to  little  green  grains  called  chlorophyll — 

leaf-green.     These  may  be  seen  nicely  in  moss-leaves  under 

the  compound  microscope. 

Make  a  little    paste,  in  water,  of  cornstarch  or  wheat 

flour,  and   add   a  few  drops   of  a  solution  of  iodine  with 

a  little  potassium  iodide 
*  added,  or  of  a  tincture 
of  iodine.  On  the  ap- 
plication of  this  solution 
the  starch  of  the  corn- 
starch  and  flour  turns 
deep  blue.  This  is  a 
test  for  starch.  Test 

for  starch  in  a  kernel 
-  .  , 

of  corn,  in  a  grain  of 

*    FIG.  1 19.    Diagram  of  a  Section  of  a  Green  Leaf . 

ep.,  epidermis;  c.,  cells  with  chlorophyll  grains;  i.,  intercel-      WnCat,  Or  in  a 
lularspaces;  a.,  air  chambers  ;  *.>..  breathing  pores.  *^QW 

gated  leaves,  such  as  those  of  the  white-bordered  geranium. 
Boil  a  few  minutes  in  water,  and  then  soak  in  strong  al- 
cohol for  several  minutes.  This  dissolves  out  the  chloro- 
phyll. The  solution  with  the  alcohol  may  have  to  be  re- 
peated before  the  leaf  is  quite  bleached.  Now  place  the 
leaf  in  the  solution  of  iodine  and  potassium  iodide.  The 
part  that  was  green  before  will  now  turn  blue,  while  the 
former  white  border  will  remain  so.  This  proves  that 
the  starch  was  formed  only  in  the  green  part  of  the  leaf. 
Starch  forms  where  there  is  chlorophyll,  and  as  a  rule  not 
elsewhere. 


Chief  functions  of  the  leaf: 
Photosynthesis. 
Absorption  of  gases. 
Absorption  of  the  sun's  energy 
Transpiration. 


Important  functions  of  the 
leaf  in  common  with  other 
plant  parts: 

Synthesis  of  proteids. 

Respiration. 

Digestion. 


Absorbed  by  the  leaf: 
Sun's  energy. 
Oxygen  for  respiration. 
Carbon  dioxide  for  photosynthesis. 

Given  off  from  the  leaf: 
Oxygen  from  photosynthesis. 
Carbon  dioxide  from  respiration* 
Water  by  transpiration. 


Absorbed  by  the  roots: 

Oxygen. 

Water. 
Salts  of: 

Potassium. 

Calcium. 

Magnesium 

Iron. 

Nitrogen. 

Sulphur. 

Phosphorus. 


Given  off  from  the  roots: 
Carbon  dioxide.     Possibly  in  some  in- 
stances organic  acids  and  enzymes. 


FIG.  120.    Longitudinal  Diagram  of  a  Plant. 

In  this  diagram  the  dotted  highway  is  the  water  conducting  area,  and  the  black  highway  is  the  area 
for  conduction  of  the  food  made  in  the  leaf.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  flow  in  these  highways. 
From  Steven's  "  Introduction  to  Botany,"  copyright,  1902,  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company.  Used  by 
permission. 

317 


3i8  NATURE-STUDY 

To  show  that  light  is  necessary  for  starch  formation,  and 
that  the  chlorophyll  alone  is  not  sufficient,  place  a  geranium 
or  nasturtium  in  a  dark  room  or  in  a  light-tight  box  for  a  day 
or  so.  Then  test  as  before  and  no  starch  will  be  found  in 
the  leaves. 

These  experiments  show  that  starch  is  formed  in  the  green 
parts  of  plants,  and  in  the  presence  of  sunlight.  This  shows 
the  great  importance  of  sunlight  to  plants.  Why  do  we 
place  house-plants  in  the  window?  Plants  like  geraniums 
placed  in  dark  or  shady  places  would  be  in  a  starving  con- 
dition. Explain. 

The  leaf  absorbs  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  air,  and  water 
is  brought  to  it  from  the  root.  Out  of  these  substances  the 
leaf  cells  make  the  starch.  The  leaf,  therefore,  is  a  very 
important  organ  to  the  plant.  The  explanation  of  starch 
formation  as  it  takes  place  in  the  leaf  need  not  be  given  in 
the  grades.  Let  it  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the  leaf  does 
make  starch.  A  figurative  explanation  may,  however,  be 
given  in  this  manner:  "The  leaf  is  a  mill  where  the  raw 
materials  taken  in  by  the  plant  are  ground  and  prepared. 
The  raw  materials  are  water  and  carbon  dioxide.  The 
millstones  are  the  chlorophyll  grains,  and  the  power  that 
turns  them  is  the  sunlight."  The  figure  is  very  apt. 

The  starch  is  used  by  the  plant  as  food,  and  is  readily 
converted  into  sugar,  and  vice  versa.  Thus  we  have  the 
sugar  in  sugar  cane  and  fruit.  By  the  addition  of  the  mineral 
salts  (nitrates,  potash,  lime  salts,  phosphates,  etc.)  taken  in 
by  the  roots,  other  food  substances  (proteids)  are  made  by 
the  plant. 

Sometimes  the  food  is  not  all  used  up  immediately  by  the 
plant  but  is  stored  for  a  time  as  a  reserve.  Thus  we  find 


LESSONS   WITH  'PLANTS 


starch  in  tubers,  roots,  root-stalks,  and  other  parts  as  a 
reserve  supply.  Seeds  also  contain  reserve  food,  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  starch  as  in  grains,  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
oils  as  in  many  nuts,  and  in  other  forms.  It  is  chiefly  in 
this  form  that  man  utilizes  the  food 
obtained  from  plants. 

As  a  by-product  in  starch-making, 
plants  give  off  oxygen  gas.  They 
absorb  for  their  food  the  carbon  di- 
oxide which  is  harmful  to  animals, 
and  return  to  the  air  the  oxygen  which 
the  latter  need.  Animals,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  breathing  give  off  carbon 
dioxide. 

The  oxygen  given  off  by  plants 
during  starch-making  may  be  shown 
by  the  following  pretty  experiment : 

Collect  a  mass  of  green  pond  scum 
or  other  water  plants.  Place  in  an 
aquarium  in  a  sunny  window.  Set  a 
glass  funnel  over  the  plants  in  the  water,  and  over  the  tube  of 
the  funnel  slip  an  inverted  test-tube  filled  with  water.  Let 
stand  several  days  and  note  that  the  bubbles  of  gas  given  off 
from  the  green  plants  rise  into  the  test-tube.  After  a  consid- 
erable quantity  has  collected,  the  tube  may  be  removed  care- 
fully, closing  the  opening  with  the  thumb  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  gas.  Then  with  a  glowing  taper  the  gas  may 
be  tested.  If  the  taper  bursts  into  a  flame  when  it  is  thrust 
into  the  test-tube  the  gas  is  oxygen. 

The  above  experiments  on  the  function  of  a  leaf  may  be 
performed  in  any  of  the  grammar  grades;  even  in  the  sixth 


FIG.  121.     Giving  off  Oxygen. 


32o  NATURE-STUDY 

grade  of  the  intermediate  the  children  will  appreciate  much 
of  their  meaning.  In  the  primary  grades  also  a  little  can 
be  done  to  show  the  children  the  necessity  of  leaves  to  the 
plant,  and  the  need  of  sunshine  to  make  it  grow.  Cut  off 
the  leaves  as  they  appear  on  a  plant  and  note  the  effect  on 
the  growth.  Place  a  plant  in  the  dark  for  several  weeks, 
and  note  then  its  sickly,  spindling  condition.  Plants  need 
sunshine  as  much  as  little  children. 

Primary  children  may  also  collect  leaves  of  different 
forms,  study  their  shapes  and  venation,  and  make  draw- 
ings of  them.  In  the  autumn  let  them  gather  colored  leaves 
and  paint  them. 

The  relation  of  plants  to  light  is  seen  also  in  their  attempt 
to  arrange  their  branches  and  leaves  so  as  to  give  all  an  equal 
chance  at  the  light.  Go  out  on  the  school  lawn  and  note 
the  beautiful  arrangement  of  the  leaves  of  a  dandelion  or 
common  plantain.  They  are  arranged  in  rosettes.  Examine 
the  twigs  of  maple,  horse-chestnut,  and  other  trees,  and 
you  will  see  that  in  general  they  grow  so  that  they  do  not 
shade  each  other.  Go  into  the  forest  or  a  thick  grove  and 
note  how  on  account  of  the  lack  of  light  the  lower  branches 
of  the  trees  are  weak  and  dying.  Note  that  plants  which  have 
plenty  of  light  do  not  grow  so  tall  and  slender  as  those  that 
grow  in  the  shade.  In  the  shade,  plants  grow  tall  in  trying 
to  reach  up  to  the  light.  This  is  also  seen  in  trees.  Com- 
pare a  maple  or  pine  that  has  grown  in  the  open  with  one 
grown  in  a  dense  forest  where  it  was  shaded  by  its  neighbors. 

MODIFIED  LEAVES:  Sometimes  the  leaves  of  plants  are 
modified  for  secondary  functions.  For  example,  the  pitcher 
plants  have  curious  hollow  leaves  that  generally  contain 
some  water  into  which  insects  fall  and  drown.  The  plant 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS  321 

absorbs  the  solution  of  their  decayed  bodies.  These  plants 
grow  in  tamarack  swamps.  Dig  up  some  of  them,  plant  in 
a  pot,  and  grow  in  the  school.  They  are  very  pretty  and 
interesting. 

The  sweet  pea,  common  peas,  and  vetches  have  the  mid- 
rib of  the  leaves  modified  into  long  tendrils  that  are  sensitive 
to  touch.  When  they  reach  a  support  they  curl  around  it 
and  hold  the  plant  up.  The  common  thistle  has  its  leaves 
covered  with  spines.  A  similar  thing  is  seen  in  many  other 
plants,  notably  in  the  Russian  "thistle."  Bud  scales  are 
also  modified  leaves,  serving  a  special  protective  purpose. 
The  bud  scales  on  the  lilac  become  true  leaves. 

Leaves  sometimes  function  as  storehouses  of  food.  This 
is  seen  in  the  thickened  bases  of  the  leaves  of  an  onion. 

The  older  children  can  understand  that  the  flower  parts, 
the  floral  envelopes,  and  even  the  stamens  and  pistils  are 
simply  modified  leaves.  Occasionally  "green"  flowers 
appear  on  roses  and  other  plants,  which  show  plainly  the 
reversion  of  some  floral  structure  to  the  green  leaf -like  state. 
The  calyx  generally  retains  its  green  and  leafy  appearance. 

The   Flower 

The  flower  is  the  most  beautiful  and  wonderful  organ  of 
a  plant.  It  is  also  very  important  in  that  through  it  the 
plant  reproduces  itself.  The  flower  should  be  regarded  as 
the  seed  maker.  Generally  it  is  simply  thought  of  as  some- 
thing fragrant  and  beautiful,  and  the  other  fact  is  lost  sight 
of.  A  child  cannot  get  the  full  meaning  of  the  complex 
process  of  seed  formation,  but  he  can  and  should  know 
in  a  general  way  what  a  flower  is  for. 

One  of  the  earliest  spring  flowers  is  the  Dwarf  Trillium 


322  NATURE-STUDY 

growing  in  rich  moist  woods.  Pull  the  plants  up  by  the 
roots  and  observe  that  they  spring  from  a  rounded,  bud- 
like  rootstalk.  This  was  formed  last  summer  and  filled 
with  a  store  of  food  that  the  plant  might  make  an  early  start 
in  the  spring.  There  are  three  large  leaves  in  a  circle  around 
the  stem  just  below  the  flower.  These  will  have  to  make 
the  starch  with  which  next  year's  rootstalk  is  to  be  filled. 


FIG.  122.    Wake  Robin  or  Dwarf  Trillium. 

Look  at  the  flower.  On  the  under  side  and  surrounding 
it  are  three  green,  leaf-like  parts.  These  are  the  sepals. 
Taken  together  they  are  called  the  calyx,  which  means  cup. 
This  cup-like  appearance  of  the  calyx  is  seen  better  in  some 
other  flowers,  as,  for  example,  in  the  morning-glory.  Next 
within  are  three  white  parts,  shaped  like  the  sepals.  These 
are  called  the  petals,  and  all  together  they  form  the  corolla, 
meaning  crown.  The  corolla  is  more  crown-like  and  golden 
in  some  other  flowers,  as,  for  example,  the  buttercup.  In- 


LESSONS   WITH 'PLANTS 


323 


side  the  corolla  are  six  knobbed  stalks  with  yellow  heads. 
These  are  the  stamens,  and  the  knobs  on  the  top  are  anthers. 
The  anthers  are  split  open  along  the  sides  and  a  yellow 
powder  may  be  seen  crumbling  out.  This  powder  is  called 
pollen  and  consists  of  minute  grains.  Bees  like  to  eat  it  and 
carry  it  away  to  their  hives.  In  the  centre  of  the  flower  is 


FIG   123.    The  Pasque  Flower  or  Hairy  Anemone. 
(One  of  the  very  earliest.) 

still  another  structure,  shaped  like  an  angled  cone,  greenish 
in  color,  and  with  three  little  projections  on  top.  The  whole 
thing  is  called  the  pistil.  The  swollen  lower  part  is  the 
ovary,  and  the  slender  projections  on  top  are  called  stigmas. 
The  ovary  contains  the  rudimentary  seeds.  If  it  is  cut 
across  the  middle  the  ovules  or  young  seeds  will  be  seen  in 
three  cavities.  These  ovules  will  not  develop  into  seeds 
unless  the  pollen  from  this  or  some  other  trillium  flower  falls 
upon  the  stigma  of  this  pistil.  Pollen  is  an  essential  thing 


324  NATURE-STUDY 

in  seed  formation.  When  the  flower  goes  to  seed  the  pretty 
corolla  fades  and  withers,  and  the  stamens  also  fall  off.  The 
ovary  grows  larger  and  changes  into  a  fleshy  red  fruit  that 
contains  the  ripe  seeds. 

Make  a  large  diagram  on  the  black-board  to  show  the 
flower  plan.  Also  make  enlarged  views  of  the  stamens, 
pistil,  and  section  of  the  ovary.  Let  the  children  draw  simi- 
lar diagrams  after  a  study  of  the  flower. 

Dig  up  a  lot  of  budding-plants  and  plant  them  in  a  dish. 
They  will  open  in  the  school-room  and  make  a  pretty  dis- 
play. 

The  above  is  a  suggestion  for  the  method  of  studying  a 
plant  in  general,  and  a  typical  flower  in  particular.  After 
a  typical,  perfect  flower  has  been  studied  take  up  modified, 
irregular,  and  imperfect  flowers.  These  should  be  studied 
with  reference  always  to  their  peculiar  adaptations.  In 
many  flowers  the  sepals  grow  together,  and  the  petals  unite  to 
form  a  tubular  corolla.  In  many  the  number  of  stamens 
is  either  increased  or  reduced,  and  their  shapes  vary  much. 
There  may  be  only  one  or  several  pistils  in  a  flower.  Some- 
times they  may  unite  into  a  single  compound  pistil,  though 
the  number  that  united  may  generally  still  be  seen  by  out- 
side grooves  or  by  cutting  across  the  ovary  and  counting  the 
cells  or  cavities.  The  stigmas  vary  greatly  in  appearance. 
Sometimes  they  are  borne  at  the  ends  of  long  slender  stems 
called  styles.  In  many  flowers  the  sepals  or  petals  are 
irregular  or  unsymmetrical  in  shape.  These  modifications 
are  generally  an  adaptation  to  compel  visiting  insects  to 
enter  the  flower  in  a  certain  way,  and  thereby  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  stamens  and  pistils,  bringing  about  cross- 
pollination,  considered  below.  Sometimes  either  the  calyx 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


325 


or  the  corolla,  or  both,  are  missing.  Sometimes  flowers  have 
stamens  and  no  pistils  and  vice  versa.  This  also  is  a  device 
for  cross-pollination.  Types  of  flowers  illustrating  these 
modifications  in  structure  should  be  shown. 

Let  primary  children  study  flowers  chiefly  with  an  aesthetic 
interest.     Xeach  them  to  recognize  the  parts  of  a  perfect 


FIG.  124.    Staminate  and  Pistillate  Flowers  of  a  Squash  Cut  Open 

flower.  Also  let  them  watch  window  or  outdoor  plants  and 
see  that  the  flower  goes  to  seed.  The  process  of  pollination 
may  be  briefly  studied.  Watch  the  bees  and  other  insects 
crawling  in  the  flowers  and  see  how  they  become  dusted 
with  pollen.  Let  the  pupils  begin  to  identify  the  common 
wild  flowers. 

In  intermediate  grades  other  points  may  be  taken  up. 
Study  the  floral  organs  more  in  detail,  particularly  the  stamens 


326 


NATURE-STUDY 


and  pistils.  The  children  should  now  be  taught  the  mean- 
ing of  the  perfume,  nectar,  and  beautiful  colors.  These  are 

not  meant  for  us  but 
primarily  for  the 
benefit  of  the  plant. 
They  attract  the 
passing  bees,  butter- 
flies, and  other  in- 
sects. The  colors  and 
odors  are  simply  con- 
spicuous signs  that 
here  is  insect  refresh- 
ment to  be  had.  The 
insects  in  exchange, 
though  unconscious- 
ly and  unintention- 
ally, of  course,  pay 
therefor  by  carrying 
pollen  from  flower 
to  flower.  Though 
there  were  no  hu- 
man beings  to  ap- 
preciate its  beauty 
and  fragrance,  still 
full  many  a  flower 
would  not  be  born 

FIG.  125.    Sweet  Pea. 

to  blush  unseen  and 

waste  its  sweetness  upon  the  desert  air,  if  it  did  attract 
insects  that  would  cause  cross-pollination.  Let  the  chil- 
dren examine  more  closely  the  way  insects  enter  flowers  and 
how  they  carry  the  pollen  to  other  flowers.  Consider  a  few 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS 


327 


simple  cases  of  cross-pollination,  such  as  the  sweet  pea, 
the  morning-glory,  sweet  clover,  etc.  Try  this  experiment: 
Tie  over  a  sweet  pea  bud  or  a  red  clover  head  a  paper 
or  muslin  bag.  The  flower 
so  treated  will  not  form 
seeds.  In  many  flowers 
there  is  provision,  however, 
for  the  pollen  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  stigma  of 
the  same  flower.  Self-pol- 
lination thus  takes  place 
and  seeds  will  form.  A 
better  experiment  is  this: 
Select  some  flowers  that 
have  pistillate  and  stami- 
nate  flowers  separate,  where 
self-pollination  is  impossi- 
ble. The  squash,  pumpkin 
or  cucumber  is  very  good 
for  this.  Cover  the  pistil- 
late flower  so  insects  can- 
not get  at  the  stigmas,  and 
no  seeds  or  fruit  will  form. 
This  will  bring  out  well 
the  importance  of  the  sta- 
mens and  pistil  and  also  of  the  process  of  pollination.  Re- 
fer to  the  subject  of  cross-pollination  as  treated  under  In- 
sects, page  224. 

In  these  grades  also  a  simple  study  may  be  made  of  another 
method  of  pollination,  namely,  by  the  wind.  Get  the  pen- 
dulous catkins  of  cottonwood  and  butternut,  the  staminate 


FIG.  126.    Pollination  in  Sweet  Pea. 


328 


NATURE-STUDY 


catkins  of  pines,  or  the  drooping  staminate  flower  clusters 
of  the  boxelder  or  hard  maple.  If  they  are  not  quite  ripe 
place  them  in  water  for  a  few  days.  Then  the  anthers  will 
be  open  and  the  slightest  jarring  of  the  branches  will  shake 
out  great  clouds  of  fine,  yellow  pollen  which  floats  upon  the 
air.  Make  a  study  in  a  general  way  of  these  plants,  noting 


FIG.  127.    Development  of  Sweet  Pea  Flower  into  Fruit. 

the  way  pollination  is  brought  about.  As  a  rule  these  flow- 
ers are  not  pretty,  yet  very  interesting  on  close  examination. 
The  study  of  the  details  of  structure  of  these  flowers  may  be  de- 
ferred to  higher  grades.  But  here  the  fact  should  be  rec- 
ognized that  these  peculiar  flower  clusters  produce  an  abun- 
dance of  very  light  and  dry  pollen  which  the  wind  can  shake 
out  and  carry  away.  Note  also  the  large  and  often  hairy 
stigmas  of  the  pistil,  and  see  how  well  they  are  adapted  for 
catching  the  pollen  as  it  drifts  by. 


LESSONS   WITH   PLANTS 


329 


Later  in  the  summer,  grasses  should  be  studied.  It  will 
be  seen  that  here  also  the  wind  is  the  chief  agent  in  pollina- 
tion. 

Have  the  children  realize  that  trees,  grasses,  and  weeds 
are  also  "flowers." 

In  grammar  grades  still  more  may  be  done  with  the  study 

of    flowers    and     r .. 

pollination.  Pe- 
culiar modifica- 
tions of  flower 
structure  to  en- 
sure cross-polli- 
nation should  be 
considered,  such 
as  the  lady's- 
slipper,  Jack-in- 
the- pulpit,  and 
other  flowers. 
Here  we  can  re- 
fer to  the  pur- 
pose of  cross- 
pollination;  namely,  that  by  it  rather  than  by  self-pollination 
larger  and  better  seed,  and  consequently  better  and  stronger 
offspring,  are  produced.  Most  plants  seem  to  try  to  effect 
cross-pollination,  while  many,  like  the  plants  that  have  only 
stamens  or  only  pistils  in  a  flower,  make  self-pollination 
impossible. 

Let  the  pupils  try  some  experiments  in  pollinating  flowers  by 
hand .  With  a  small  water-color  brush  or  a  feather  take  off  some 
pollen  from  a  flower  and  transfer  it  to  another  flower  of  the 
same  kind.  Pollinate  in  this  way  differently  colored  varieties 


FIG.  128. 


Pistillate  and  Staminate  Flowers  from  Separate 
Boxelder  Trees. 


33° 


NATURE-STUDY 


of  geraniums,  sweet  peas,  pansies,  tomatoes,  corn,  etc. 
In  this  way  seed  will  be  formed  which,  if  properly  ripened, 
will  produce  plants  that  have  the  combined  or  blended  char- 
acteristics of  the  parents.  This  is  called  making  hybrids. 

Many  choice  flowers 
in  greenhouses  and 
gardens  and  new  va- 
rieties of  fruit  are 
thus  formed  by  the 
cross-pollination  of 
nearly  related,  but 
different,  plants. 

These  pupils  are 
old  enough  to  make 
a  study  of  the  uni- 
sexual flowers  of 
trees.  Begin  with 
the  willows  and  cot- 
tonwoods.  These 
come  out  early  in 
the  spring  before  the 

FIG.  I29.    Jack-in-the-pulpit.  fc^   appean       The 

flowers  are  quite  small,  and  are  arranged  in  long  drooping 
clusters,  which  are  called  catkins.  On  some  trees  there 
are  only  staminate  catkins,  and  on  others  only  pistillate. 
The  staminate  flowers  consist  each  of  a  little  scale,  under 
which  are  borne  a  number  of  short  stamens.  At  first 
the  scales  are  closely  overlapping,  but  as  the  flowers  ma- 
ture the  scales  separate,  and  the  stamens  with  their  dust- 
like  pollen  appear.  This  is  wafted  to  the  pistillate  flowers 
on  other  trees.  The  pistillate  flowers  similarly  consist  of 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 


a  scale  and  large  pistil.  These  flowers,  compared  with  a 
flower  like  a  rose,  are  very  incomplete,  yet  they  have  the  essen- 
tial things  necessary  for  seed  making.  The  pistillate  cat- 
kins become  long  clusters  of  green  berry-like  fruit.  Later  in 
summer  the  pods  ripen,  become  papery  in  texture,  and  final- 
ly split  open,  let- 
ting out  a  mass 
of  down-covered 
seed  which  floats 
away. 

Compare  with 
these  the  flow- 
ers of  trees  like 
the  butternuts, 
walnuts,  and 
oaks.  These  have 
staminate  flow- 
ers very  similar 
to  those  of  the 
willows  and  cot- 
tonwoods,  but  in 
these  the  pistillate  flowers  are  not  in  catkins,  but  are  in  clusters 
of  a  few  or  singly,  and  nearly  sessile  on  the  twig.  They  are, 
however,  rudimentary  in  structure  and  do  not  possess  a 
corolla  or  stamens.  The  acorns  (ripe  ovaries)  are  set  in  a 
scaly  cup.  Some  acorns,  like  those  of  the  red  oak,  require 
two  years  for  ripening.  Hence  we  find  on  the  fruiting 
branches  pistillate  flowers  and  also  year-old  acorns,  but  on 
wood  of  different  years. 

Study  the  flowers  of  boxelders.     These  are  not  in  catkins 
but  in  clusters  and  drooping  masses,  each  floweret  on  a  sep- 


FIG.  130     Staminate  Catkins  of  Cottonwood. 
(Pollen  carried  by  wind.) 


332 


NATURE-STUDY 


arate  peduncle.  The  pistillate  flowers  have  on  the  ovary 
curious  expansions,  which  later  develop  into  large  wings  for 
aiding  in  the  distribution  of  the  fruit. 

The  flowers  of  many  other  trees  are  worthy  of  study. 
Many  are  really  very  pretty  when  closely  examined.  Elm, 
ash,  birch,  basswood,  and  the  conifers  are  all  generally  dis- 
regarded in  na- 
ture-study, but 
should  not  be 
neglected.  Pu- 
pils are  else  apt 
to  forget  that 
trees  with  such 
inconspicuous 
flowers  are  true 
flowering  plants. 
Of  course,  such 

FIG.  131.    Pistillate  Flowers  of  Cottonwood.  trCCS     clS    have 

large,  showy  flowers  will  be  studied  anyway,  as  the  apple, 
plum,  cherry,  hawthorn,  locust,  horse-chestnut,  etc. 

In  the  autumn  wild  asters,  wild  sunflowers,  coneflowers, 
coreopsis,  golden  rods,  blazing  stars,  eupatories,  thistles,  and 
still  some  belated  dandelions  are  in  bloom.  They  consti- 
tute the  chief  glory  of  the  early  autumn  in  the  fields,  mead- 
ows, waysides,  and  wood  clearings.  In  our  gardens  we 
have  at  this  time  cultivated  asters,  zinnias,  dahlias,  bache- 
lor's-buttons, marguerites,  daisies,  gaillardias,  cosmos,  cal- 
liopsis,  and  marigold.  The  golden-glows  and  common 
tall  sunflowers  have  probably  gone  to  seed.  All  these 
plants  belong  to  a  great  family  called  the  Composites,  which 
the  pupils  of  the  upper  grades  should  not  only  learn 


LESSONS   WITH   PLANTS 


333 


to  recognize  but  understand 
way. 

The  common  sunflower  is 
the  structure  of  com- 
posites. A  few  belated 
specimens  may  still  be 
found  in  the  fall  when 
school  begins.  But  the 
single  garden  zinnias, 
and  single  asters,  the 
wild  sunflowers,  and  the 
daisies  will  do  very  well. 
At  first  thought  one 
would  think  that  what 
is  generally  called  a  sun 
"flower"  is  really  a  sin- 
gle flower,  but  closer  ex- 
amination will  reveal 
the  fact  that  this  is  an 
aggregation  of  hundreds 
of  very  small  flowers 
massed  together  in  a 
flat  head.  Note  first  the 


the  structure  of  in  a  general 
perhaps  the  best  for  teaching 


FIG.  132.    Pussy-willows. 
(The  pussies  are  flower  buds.) 


green  calyx-like  leafy 
scales  on  the  outside  of 
the  whole.  This  is  not  a  true  calyx,  but  is  called  an  in- 
volucre. Note  how  the  scales  are  in  several  overlapping 
rows.  Next  within  the  green  involucre  comes  a  circle  of 
flat,  ribbon  or  strap-shaped,  colored  parts  that  are  often 
wrongly  called  petals.  They  are  not  petals,  but  whole  flow- 
ers. Pull  out  some  of  these  flowers.  Note  that  the  flat 


334 


NATURE-STUDY 


band  is  rolled  up  and  grown  together  at  the  lower  end  into 
a  little  tube.  In  fact,  the  band  may  be  considered  a  little 
tubular  corolla  like  the  morning-glory  slit  open  on  one 
side  nearly  to  the  base.  In  the  sunflower  and  many  other 
such  composites  these  outer  strap-shaped,  or  ray,  flowers, 
as  they  are  called,  are  merely  for  show,  as  they  have  neither 

pistil  nor  sta- 
mens, and  there- 
fore do  not  form 
seed.  But  in  the 
daisy,  zinnia,  and 
many  other  flow- 
ers they  are  not 
sterile,  but  form 
seeds.  In  the 
central  part  of 
the  head  are 
other  flowerSj 
small  and  tubu- 
lar, with  both 
stamens  and  pis- 
tils which  pro- 
duce seeds.  Note  the  two  branched  stigma  projecting  from 
the  centre  of  the  little  flower.  Tear  the  corolla  open  and 
note  the  circle  of  brown  or  yellow  stamens  surrounding  the 
style.  The  stamens  open  on  the  inside,  and  the  style  pushes 
out  the  pollen  as  it  grows  out  of  the  corolla;  but  it  is  not 
self-fertilized  thereby  because  it  is  not  yet  ripe  or  ready  for 
pollination. 

The  "flowers"  of  the  sunflower,  aster,  daisy,  and  other 
similar  composite  are  thus  seen  to  be  composed  of  a  large 


FIG.  133.    Sunflower. 

(Not  a  single  flower,  but  a  head  or  cluster  of  many  small  flowers.) 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS 


335 


number  of  small  flowers  closely  grouped  together  in  a  flat 
head.  On  account  of  this  structure  the  head  is  called  a 
composite  flower.  This  grouping  is  a  device  to  make  more 
of  a  show  than  if  the  little  flowers  were  scattered  separately 


FIG.  134. 

A  section  of  a  sunflower  showing-  involucre  bracts,  rayflowers,  and  small  tubular  flowers  standing- 
on  the  flat  receptacle.  The  central  flowers  are  still  closed.  Then  come  several  showing  stamens, 
and  the  outer  ones  have  gone  to  seed. 

over  the  plants.     Thus  insects  are  more  apt  to  be  drawn  to 
them. 

The  above  named  composites  have  two  sorts  of  flowers, 
the  ray  flowers  at  the  margin  and  a  centre  of  tubular  flowers. 
But  there  are  modifications  of  this  type.  Some  composites, 
like  the  dandelion  and  double  aster,  chrysanthemum,  daisy, 
and  zinnia,  have  only  strap-shaped  flowers  throughout  the 


336 


NATURE-STUDY 


head.  On  the  other  hand,  the  thistle  and  bachelor's-but- 
ton have  only  the  tubular  flowers.  Compare  these  with 
the  sunflower. 

The  dandelion  and  the  thistle  and  other  composites  have 
hit  upon  a  very  ingenious  device  for  scattering  the  seed,  that 

is,  by  producing  silken  para- 
chutes attached  to  the  seed. 
Examine  a  dandelion  or 
thistle  head  gone  to  seed. 
Blow  off  the  downy  mass 
from  the  dandelion  and  see 
how  the  "seeds"  float  away 
in  the  air  by  means  of  the 
little  umbrella-shaped  para- 
chute. 

Go  out  into  the  fields 
and  roadsides  and  into  the 
flower  gardens  with  the 
class  and  pick  out  the  com- 
posites. Also  note  such  as 
FIG.  135-  Thistle.  1^^  the  parachute  device 

for  scattering  the  fruit.  Some,  like  the  beggar 's-ticks  (pitch- 
forks), form  spurs  at  the  top  of  the  fruits,  with  which  they 
stick  to  the  clothes  of  man  or  the  fur  of  animals.  Note  the 
bees  and  butterflies  at  work  pollinating  the  composites. 

Studying  the  Common  Flowering  Plants 

There  is  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  roaming  about  the  fields 
and  woods  searching  for  wild  flowers.  Who  does  not  de- 
light at  the  sight  of  the  first  anemone  or  bloodroot  in  spring  ? 
To  find  a  pink  lady's-slipper  or  the  Indian-pipe  gives  one 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS  337 

the  feeling  of  the  discoverer  of  a  rare  treasure.  This  pleas- 
ure in  plants  increases  as  our  knowledge  of,  and  familiarity 
with,  them  grow;  most  people  know  the  names  and  habits 
of  but  very  few  plants.  If  a  systematic  study  were  made 
of  our  common,  wild,  flowering  plants  in  our  schools  this  would 
not  be  the  case.  Suppose  the  pupils  were  required  to  learn 
the  names  of,  say,  ten  new  plants  each  year,  then  by  the  time 
they  passed  through  the  eight  grades  of  the  common  school 
they  would  know  at  least  eighty  plants,  and  this  number 
could  be  easily  increased. 

In  the  lower  grades  it  is  stimulating  to  observation  to 
have  a  flower  calendar  in  the  spring.  This  should  give  the 
dates  when  the  flowers  open  and  where  they  are  found,  that 
is,  in  what  kind  of  places.  Go  out  with  the  children  and 
study  the  flowers  where  they  grow,  and  gather  some  for 
indoor  study  of  the  structure.  The  children  should  learn  to 
associate  each  plant  with  the  habitat  or  kind  of  place  in  which 
it  lives. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  study  of  the  common  flowers  is 
to  be  able  to  identify  them.  But  many  other  general  lessons 
may  be  taught  with  them,  as  to  the  function  of  typical  organs 
and  their  modifications,  as  to  the  adaptation  of  the  plant  to 
its  habitat  or  its  mode  of  life,  as  to  methods  of  pollination 
and  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  insects,  also  the  means  of 
seed  dispersal,  and  the  uses  or  harmfulness  of  the  plant. 
Let  these  points  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  study  of  each  plant. 
It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  each  point  should  be  discussed 
with  every  new  plant,  but  any  notable  characteristic  in  these 
respects  should  be  observed  and  discussed.  In  this  way  the 
children  will  get  much  more  than  simply  the  name  of  the 
plant;  they  will  learn  a  good  deal  about  plant  life  in  general. 


338  NATURE-STUDY 

Use  pictures  and  black-board  diagrams  to  illustrate  the 
structure.  In  the  upper  grades  a  magnifying  glass  should  be 
employed,  and  occasionally  the  compound  microscope  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage.  There  should  be  plenty  of  material 
for  illustration.  The  whole  plant,  root  and  all,  should  be 
brought  in.  In  case  the  plant  is  rather  rare  and  is  one  of 
our  choice  wild  flowers,  it  would  not  be  right  to  gather  too 
many  specimens  or  to  destroy  the  root. 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  harm  done  in  the  name 
of  science.  In  the  more  densely  settled  regions  of  our  country, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  cities,  our  native  wild  flowers  are  suf- 
fering great  destruction.  Much  of  this  is  due,  no  doubt,  to 
the  collecting  of  plants  for  school  study  and  for  herbaria. 
In  a  course  of  nature-study  it  is  not  necessary  to  press  plants, 
unless  it  be  for  a  school  herbarium.  The  wild  flowers  should 
not  be  ruthlessly  destroyed. 

In  studying  "flowers"  do  not  limit  yourself  to  the  con- 
spicuously colored  and  showy  kinds,  but  include  others 
equally  wonderful  and  instructive,  such  as  trees,  grasses,  and 
weeds.  Many  people  make  a  distinction  between  these  and 
"flowers."  But  all  of  them  are  flowering  plants. 

Again,  do  not  forget  to  study  the  late  summer  and  autumn 
flowers,  mainly  composed  of  the  composites. 

Movements  oj  Plants 

Plants  are  so  much  regarded  as  passive  things  that  it  is 
well  to  show  that  they  are  fairly  active  and  can  actually  move. 
The  larger  and  higher  types,  of  course,  cannot  move  from 
place  to  place,  but  that  is  precisely  what  many  microscopic 
plants  can  do.  In  the  higher  grades  a  drop  of  water  con- 
taining some  diatoms,  found  in  the  sediment  of  brooks  and 


LESSONS   WITH   PLANTS 


339 


ditches,  may  be  shown  with  the  compound  miscroscope. 
These  little  unicellular  plants  have  the  power  of  locomotion. 
On  moist  earth  in  ditches  there  is  often  a  coating  of  bluish- 
green  algae,  the  Oscillatoria,  which  also  have  some  power 
of  movement.  There  are 
spore-cells  set  free  by 
many  plants  that  swim 
actively  about,  and  are 
reproductive  devices. 

Though  the  larger 
plants  may  not  move 
about,  yet  they  can  move 
their  various  parts.  A 
few  observations  on 
growing  plants  will  show 
them  to  be  thoroughly 
alive  and  active. 

In  a  glass  germinator 
(see  p.  300)  notice  how 
the  roots  of  seedlings 
grow  down.  Invert  the 
germinator.  Note  that 
in  a  day  or  so  the  roots 
have  turned  and  now  grow  downward  again, 
know  enough  to  grow  down. 

Note  also  how  a  rootlet  bends  away  from  and  around  an 
obstruction,  such  as  a  pebble  placed  in  its  course.  The 
root  is  sensitive  to  touch  and  responds  by  a  curvature. 

Plant  a  sunflower  or  other  seedling  in  the  drain  hole  of  a 
small  flowerpot  full  of  earth  and  hang  it  up  somewhere.  Note 
that  soon  the  stem  curves  upward.  The  same  may  be  shown 


FIG.  136.    Squash  Seedling  Laid  on  its  Side  has 
Straightened  up  Again. 


They  seem  to 


340 


NATURE-STUDY 


by  simply  laying  a  pot  of  young  plants  on  its  side.  Grain 
that  has  been  blown  down  or  lodged  in  the  fields  will  often, 
if  not  too  ripe,  grow  upward  again. 

Plants  generally  turn  toward  the  light.  Set  a  box  of  seed- 
lings in  the  window.  In  a  very  short  time,  if  the  light  is 
strong,  the  plants  will  all  be  bending  toward  the  light.  Turn 


FIG.  137.    Plants  Turning  Toward  the  Light. 
(  Squash  seedlings.) 

the  box  around  and  see  how  long  it  is  before  the  plants  have 
again  bent  toward  the  light. 

Most  plants  hold  their  leaves  toward  the  light  and  tend 
to  grow  in  that  direction.  Notice  this  in  the  geraniums, 
nasturtiums,  and  other  window  plants.  Why  do  people  turn 
their  window  plants  around  occasionally? 

The  sunflower  has  apparently  a  special  fondness  for  the 
sun.  Observe  the  top  of  a  young  plant  outdoors  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  the  day,  and  see  how  the  head  follows  the 
sun  in  its  course. 

Visit  the  edge  of  a  grove  or  forest.     Note  how  the  outer 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS  341 

trees  lean  toward  the  lighter  side.  This  is  an  effect  of  one- 
sided illumination. 

Many  plants  assume  definite  attitudes  during  the  night, 
as  if  they  went  to  sleep.  Note  the  position  of  the  leaves  of  a 
young  bean  exposed  to  the  light.  Compare  with  another 
kept  in  the  dark  for  a  number  of  hours.  In  the  dark  the 
leaflets  are  more  or  less  folded  down  and  together  and  held 
closer  to  the  stem.  The  oxalis,  sweet  clover,  and  other 
plants  have  similar  habits. 

Many  flowers  open  and  shut  under  the  influence  of  light 
and  darkness.  We  all  know  that  the  morning-glory  opens 
early  in  the  morning.  The  dandelion  "  wakens  with  the 
dawn."  The  four-o'clock  remains  shut  until  late  in  the  af- 
ternoon. 

The  opening  and  closing  of  flowers  may  be  partly  due  to 
the  light  and  darkness,  but  not  entirely  so.  Some  plants 
seem  to  be  regulated  by  the  time  of  flight  of  the  insects  de- 
pended upon  for  pollination.  Some  flowers  that  open  only 
at  night  are  pollinated  by  moths  and  other  nocturnal  insects. 

Instead  of  closing  at  night,  many  flowers  simply  droop 
or  nod,  and  they  do  this  also  in  the  daytime  to  keep  out  the 
rain. 

Some  plants  are  excellent  climbers.  Some,  like  the  peas, 
hold  themselves  to  their  support  by  means  of  tendrils. 
These  are  sensitive  to  the  touch,  and  when  they  feel  the 
support  as  they  wave  around  in  the  air  in  search  for  it, 
will  quickly  curl  around  it.  Other  interesting  tendrils  are 
those  of  the  wild  cucumber  and  of  the  Virginia  creeper  or 
woodbine.  One  variety  of  the  woodbine,  the  "self-clinging" 
kind,  has  tendrils  that,  as  soon  as  they  touch  the  support, 
spread  out  at  the  tip  into  little  sucker  disks  that  attach 


342 


NATURE-STUDY 


themselves  firmly.  The  climbing  nasturtium  has  no  ten- 
drils, but  its  long  leaf-stalks  twist  themselves  about  the 
support  and  hold  up  the  plant. 

The  morning-glory,  the  hop,  and  other 
twining  plants  should  be  observed  as 
they  climb  on  their  supports.  A  young 
morning-glory  may  be  seen  to  apparently 
feel  around  for  something  to  climb  upon. 
When  it  touches  such  a  support,  as  it 
swings  around  with  its  tip,  it  seems  to 
feel,  and  then  grows  spirally  around  the 
same. 

The  extreme  of  sensitiveness  in  plants 
may  be  seen  in  the  plant  very  properly 
called  the  sensitive  plant.  This  may  be 
obtained  at  the  greenhouses,  or  raised 
from  the  seed.  Slightly  touching  one  of 
the  leaflets  will  cause  it  and  the  other 
leaflets  in  the  compound  leaf  to  fold  to- 
gether against  the  midrib.  By  greater 
agitation  the  whole  plant  may  be  made 
to  fold  up. 

Plant  Distribution  and  Seed  Dispersal 

Plants  have  their  wanderings  and  mi- 
FIG.  138.  Moming-giory.  grations  just  as  the  races  of  men.  That 
many  plants  produce  motile  spores,  and  that .  some  algae 
have  the  power  of  locomotion,  has  been  mentioned.  But 
the  higher  plants,  though  they  may  remain  fixed  as  individ- 
uals, still  make  extensive  wanderings  as  a  race  or  species. 
The  races  of  man  have  become  distributed  over  nearly 


LESSONS  WITH   PLANTS 


343 


the  whole  earth.  This  migration  may  have  been  due  to 
circumstances,  such  as  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  life  in 
the  old  home,  the  encroachment  of  more  powerful  neigh- 
boring races,  or  the  attraction  of  a  region  affording  better 
living,  more  freedom,  etc.  In  many  communities  the  con- 


FIG.  139.     Sensitive  Plant. 

(  The  leaf  at  the  left  was  touched  and  was  slowly  closing  during  the  exposure  of  the 
negative.     Hence  the  blurring.) 

ditions  for  making  a  living  become  intolerable  or  very  diffi- 
cult. Then  the  younger  generations  go  to  "pastures  new." 
Many  of  them  are  assisted  by  their  parents  financially  and 
by  education  to  make  this  change.  Generally  the  old  peo- 
ple cannot  leave  their  homes  and  finally  die  there.  Thus  a 
stock  of  people  may  die  out  -in  one  place  and  appear  again 
in  another. 


344  NATURE-STUDY 

Much  the  same  thing  is  seen  in  plants.  There  is  a  mi- 
gration of  species  which  is  accomplished  in  many  inter- 
esting ways.  Generally  the  parent  plants  give  their  chil- 
dren a  good  "send  off"  and  a  travelling  equipment  that 
enables  them  to  make  the  journey.  Many  provide  also  a 


FIG.  140.    A  Neglected  Corner  is  a  Good  Place  for  the  Study  of  Seed  Dispersal. 

store  of  food  upon  which  the  young  plant  may  make  a  start 
in  life. 

A  simple  way  of  distribution  is  by  the  formation  of  runners, 
suckers,  stolons,  rootstalks,  tubers,  bulbs,  and  roots.  These 
have  already  been  referred  to  as  means  for  propagation. 

Many  of  the  lower  plants  multiply  and  are  distributed  by 
what  are  called  spores.  These  are  small  cells  set  free,  often 
in  very  great  numbers,  which  float  in  the  air  or  actually 
swim  in  the  water.  Bacteria,  algae,  fungi,  seaweeds,  mosses, 


LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS  34$ 

and  ferns  possess  spores.     Being  so  small  and  light,  spores 
float  great  distances  with  the  wind,  and  it  is  thus  that  the 


FIG.  141.     Pretty  Seed  Pods. 
("  Butterprint  "  weed.) 


germs  of  disease,  of  decay,  of  fermentation,  the  mosses  and 
lichens,  the  fungi,  and  the  ferns  are  so  widely  scattered. 
Of  greater  interest  are  the  devices  for  seed  dispersal.     The 


346 


NATURE-STUDY 


simplest  treatment  of  the  seed  by  the  parent  is  to  let  it 
fall  upon  the  ground  and  trust  that  it  will  roll  away  or  be 
blown  or  washed  farther.  But  in  this  way  the  young  plants 
are  apt  to  come  up  too  thickly  at  the  base  of  the  parent  plant 
and  thus  choke  each  other.  Some  plants,  however,  have 
pods  or  capsules  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  seeds 
cannot  drop  out  directly,  but  are  cast  out  to  some  distance 


FiG.  142.    Russian  "  Thistle  " — A  Tumble  Weed. 

by  the  swaying  of  the  elastic  stem  of  the  plant.     This  is  seen 
in  the  garden  pinks  and  poppies. 

The  wind  is  the  chief  agency  in  seed  dispersal  for  a  great 
variety  of  plants.  The  Russian  "  thistle,"  the  tumbleweed, 
and  others  break  off  as  a  whole  close  to  the  root  and  are 
carried  by  the  wind  over  the  hills  and  plains,  scattering  hun- 
dreds of  seeds  at  every  bound.  This  mode  of  dispersal 
accounts  for  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Russian  thistle  since  its 
introduction  into  this  country  a  few  years  ago.  Examine 


LESSONS  WITH  1>LANTS 


347 


a  ripe  Russian  thistle  and  note  how  it  rolls  before  the  wind. 
Note  the  numerous  seeds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

The  tickle  grass  (panic  grass,  old  witch's  broom)  breaks 
off  its  feathery  heads,  which  are  carried  away  by  the  breezes. 

In  many  plants  the  fruit  is  provided  with  special  flying 
or  soaring  devices.  This  is  well  seen  in  our  basswood,  elm, 
boxelder,  maples,  ash,  and  in  parsley  and  dock.  Throw  into 


FIG.  143.    The  Wing  Fruit  of  the  Elm. 

the  air  some  of  these  fruits  and  see  how  easily  they  sail.  Some, 
like  the  maple  and  basswood  fruits,  spin  while  drifting  through 
the  air.  This  helps  to  sustain  them  longer. 

Some  plants,  like  the  clovers,  the  hop,  blue  beach,  iron- 
wood,  and  bladder-nut,  have  a  bladdery  envelope  around 
their  fruit  as  a  sailing  device. 

But  perhaps  the  prettiest  and  neatest  arrangement  for 
sailing  is  found  in  the  down  of  many  composite  plants.  The 
common  dandelion,  asters,  goldenrods,  and  thistles  have 


343 


NATURE-STUDY 


beautiful  downy  parachutes,  which  are  extensions  and 
modifications  of  the  calyx  of  the  little  separate  flowers. 
The  calyx  in  its  free  upper  portion  is  split  up  into  fine  fibres 
that  constitute  the  parachute.  This  carries  away  more  than 

a  seed.  It  is  a  seed  plus  a 
close  fitting  ovary  and  sur- 
rounding calyx.  Hence 
it  is  not  merely  a  seed, 
but  a  fruit.  Provided 
with  such  an  excellent 
device  it  is  no  wonder 
that  the  composites  are 
so  widely  dispersed  and 
so  abundant.  Witness  the 
rapid  covering  of  a  burnt- 
over  area  with  the  fire- 
weed  (horseweed). 

Some  of  the  grasses  and 
sedges  also  have  similar 
silken  sails.  So  have  the 
cat-tails.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania anemone  has  its 
fruit  covered  all  over  with 

FIG.  144.    Dandelion  Gone  to  Seed.  goft  d()wn  iQ  enable  ft  iQ 

float  on  the  air.  The  fruit  of  the  hairy  anemone  (pasque 
flower)  and  the  wild  clematis  (virgin's-bower)  has  long  hairy 
tails  for  the  same  purpose. 

But  in  many  instances  the  seed,  and  not  the  whole  fruit, 
is  provided  with  wings  for  dispersal.  The  milkweed  seed 
illustrates  this  well.  Each  has  a  tuft  of  silk.  So,  too,  our 
useful  cotton  is  covered  with  soft  fibres  intended  for  aiding 


LESSONS   WITH   ^LANTS  349 

in  dispersal.  We  have  made  use  of  them  in  another  way. 
Cottonwoods,  poplars,  and  willows  have  fruit  with  similar 
cotton-covered  seeds.  In  summer  we  can  often  see  the  air 
full  of  the  floating  seeds  of  the  cottonwood,  and  they  cover 
the  earth  like  snow  under  the  trees.  Where  a  fire  has  de- 
stroyed the  pines  or  other  forests,  these  trees  with  cottony 
seeds,  poplars  especially,  quickly  reclaim  the  region. 

The  fruit  and  seeds  of  the  catalpa  are  interesting.  The 
fruit  is  a  long  pod,  inside  which  are  many  flat  seeds  with 
each  end  fringed  with  a  sail  or  wing. 

Pines  and  other  conifers  have  a  similar  plan.  Their  seeds 
lie  on  the  inner  face  of  the  scales  of  the  cones.  When  the 
cone  is  ripe  the  scales  spread  apart  and  the  seeds  loosen  from 
the  scale,  taking  with  them  a  thin  membranous  wing  for 
flying. 

Water  is  another  agent  of  seed  distribution.  Rains  and 
running  streams  carry  the  seeds  of  many  plants.  The  seeds 
of  the  knotweed  (Polygonum)  are  provided  with  bladdery 
wings  that  enable  them  to  float.  Sometimes  we  see  the  pink 
knotweed  occupying  the  whole  length  of  a  roadside  ditch. 
That  is  because  a  few  plants  originally  scattered  their  seeds 
upon  the  water  which  carried  them  along.  Many  other  gut- 
ter weeds  are  distributed  in  like  manner. 

The  seeds  of  willows  and  cottonwoods  swim  well  and  lodge 
along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  the  shores  of  lakes.  That  is 
one  reason  why  we  find  these  trees  in  such  locations. 

The  aquatic  plants,  of  course,  depend  chiefly  upon  water 
currents  for  the  scattering  of  their  seeds. 

Animals,  though  generally  unwittingly,  are  great  agents 
for  the  dispersal  of  seeds.  All  burs  are  intended  to  be  carried 
away  by  animals.  These  burs  are  the  fruits  of  plants  and 


350 


NATURE-STUDY 


are  covered  with  spines,  recurved  hooks,  etc.  to  catch  into 
the  fur  of  animals  and  the  garments  of  people.  Plants  with 
burs  are  found  abundantly  where  animals  go,  in  the  past- 
ures, along  the  fences  and  roadsides,  around  barns.  There 

we  find  cocklebur,  bur- 
dock, sandbur,  pitch- 
forks, beggar's-lice,  tick- 
trefoil,  etc.  Even  the 
barbs  or  beards  of 
grasses  and  grains  act 
like  burs.  This  is  well 
seen  in  barley  and  in 
the  squirrel -tail  grass. 
In  the  latter  each  grain 
is  provided  with  several 
long,  slender,  barbed 
awns.  When  the  head 
is  ripe  it  breaks  up  into 
the  separate  grains. 
Passing  animals  catch 
the  barbed  awns  and  the 
seed  is  scattered.  The 
wind,  however,  may 
blow  these  light  grains,  the  barbs  acting  as  sails.  Along 
almost  every  country  lane  and  the  roadways  leading  from 
the  cities  into  the  country  we  may  see  these  bur  weeds  migrat- 
ing. The  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  dogs,  and  men  passing  along 
assist  them  on  the  way.  Burs  have  learned  the  trick  of  steal- 
ing rides. 

Man  has  carried  the  seeds  of  cultivated  plants  from  one 
end  of  the  globe  to  the  other.     Wherever  he  epes  he  takes 


FIG.  145.    Cocklebur. 


LESSONS   WITH   PLANTS 


with  him  such  food  and  other  useful  plants  as  can  be  raised 
in  the  new  region  to  which  he  moves.  Thus  wheat  and  other 
grains  have  been  brought  westward  from  the  cradle  of  civiliza- 
tion in  Central  Asia,  and  our  Indian  corn,  potato,  and  to- 
bacco have  been  carried  to  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

But  with  the  intentional  introduction  of  useful  plants  the 


\ 


FIG.  146.    The  Bright  Scarlet  Fruit  of  the  Waahoo  Remains  on  the  Bushes 
Long  after  the  Leaves  have  Fallen  and  thus  Attracts  the  Birds. 

seeds  of  harmful  weeds  have  also  been  brought  in.  Thus 
the  Russian  "thistle"  was  brought  over  from  Russia  with 
some  seed  wheat.  Many  other  weeds  such  as  daisy,  dan- 
delion, hemp,  plantain,  and  corn-cockle  were  brought  from 
Europe,  generally  unintentionally. 

Water-fowl  no  doubt  aid  in  the  distribution  of  many  marsh 
and  water-plants.  The  wild  rice,  for  example,  is  carried  on 
the  feet,  bills,  plumage,  in  the  crops  of  ducks,  geese,  and  other 
water-fowl,  and  is  scattered  on  their  wanderings. 


352 


NATURE-STUDY 


The  rosy-cheeked  apple,  the  purple  grape,  and  the  luscious 
cherry  all  are  excellent  eating — all  but  the  seeds  or  pits. 
These  we  throw  away.  Perhaps  they  will  spring  up  some- 
where. 

The  attractive  colors,  the  fragrance,  the  delicious  flavor, 
the  edible  pulp  are  all  intended  to  attract  animals  to  eat  the 

fruit.  The  seeds  are  either 
not  eaten  or  pass  through  the 
digestive  tract  uninjured. 
Birds,  especially,  help  to  dis- 
seminate seeds  in  this  way. 
Along  fences  where  birds  are 
apt  to  rest,  we  find  grape- 
vines, gooseberry,  raspberry, 
blackberry,  elder,  sumach, 
hawthorn,  red  cedars,  and 
other  vines,  trees,  and  shrubs 
that  bear  fruit.  Squirrels  and 
other  animals  also  scatter  fruit 
seeds  and  nuts.  Many  squir- 
rels have  a  way  of  burying  acorns  and  walnuts  either 
singly  or  in  large  piles.  Some  of  these  are  pretty  sure  to 
germinate. 

The  burning-bush  or  waahoo  is  an  interesting  illustration 
of  a  plant  dependent  upon  birds  for  scattering  its  seed.  In 
the  fall  the  bright  red  fruit  remains  on  the  bushes  long  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen  off.  This  makes  the  fruit  all  the  more 
conspicuous. 

There  are  a  few  plants  that  do  not  rely  upon  the  accidental 
agency  of  wind,  water,  or  animals  to  scatter  their  seeds. 
They  have  devices  of  their  own  for  forcibly  throwing  the 


FIG.  147.    Explosive  Pods. 
(  Sweet  Pea  and  Balsam.) 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS  353 

seeds  to  a  distance.  The  sweet  pea  when  ripe  splits  open 
and  quickly  curls  the  two  halves  of  the  pod  into  spirals, 
thereby  snapping  off  the  seeds.  The  pansy  does  a  similar 
thing.  Other  plants  also  have  such  methods  for  snapping 
out  the  seed. 

The  common  garden  balsam  and  its  wild  cousin  the  touch- 
me-not  have  seed  pods  that  when  ripe  and  slightly  touched 
split  up  into  spiral  parts,  thereby  throwing  the  seeds  some 
distance. 

Who  will  say  that  plants  are  uninteresting  and  stupid 
things  ? 

Grasses  and  Cereals 

Teach  the  pupils  that  grasses  and  grains  are  flowering 
plants.  Let  them  bring  early  in  summer,  timothy,  wild 
rye,  June  grass,  and  any  grains  that  happen  to  be  in  flower. 
With  a  magnifying  glass  and  with  diagrams,  study  briefly 
the  structure  of  a  grass  flower.  Note  that  the  more  showy 
parts  of  flowers  in  other  plants  are  here  replaced  by  incon- 
spicuous green  bracts.  Generally  the  anther  filaments  are 
slender  and  long,  so  that  the  anthers  hang -out  of  the  flower 
and  shake  in  the  wind.  Similarly  the  stigmas  of  grass  flowers 
are  long  and  feathery,  so  as  to  catch  the  pollen  which  is 
brought  to  them  by  the  wind.  The  flowers  of  grasses  are 
small  and  are  generally  clustered  together  in  heads  or 
spikes.  Note  the  general  appearance  and  growth  of  vari- 
ous grasses.  Note  the  hollow  stems,  the  solid  joints,  and 
the  slender  clasping  leaves.  Many  grasses  have  large  root- 
stalks. 

Though  it  may  be  impossible  to  name  all,  it  is  instructive 
to  collect  as  many  different  kinds  of  grasses  as  can  be  found 


354 


NATURE-STUDY 


in  a  neighborhood.     It  will  show  the  great  variety  there  is. 
In  the  meadows  and  pastures  are  June  grass,  timothy,  red 

top,  bent  grass,  blue  joint,  and 
on  the  western  prairies  the  buf- 
falo grass,  all  valuable  fodder. 
Millet  is  often  sown  in  the  fields 
for  fodder.  In  our  northern 
swamps  and  lake  and  river  bor- 
ders is  wild  rice.  Some  grasses 
are  considered  more  as  weeds: 
Squirrel-tail,  old-witch's  grass, 
wild  rye,  and  sand  bur  are  road- 
side weeds.  Pigeon  grass,  green 
foxtail,  and  quack  grass  are 
common  in  the  fields  and  else- 
where. Barnyard  grass  is  tall 
and  coarse,  growing  around 
barnyards  and  rich,  low  places. 
The  lawns  are  made  unsightly 
in  midsummer  by  the  low, 
spreading  crab  grass. 

The  cereals  should  be  studied 
from  the  botanical  as  well  as 
from  the  commercial  standpoint. 
Compare  them  with  the  grasses 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  have  the  narrow,  clasping 
leaves,  the  hollow  stems,  the  solid  joints  and,  also,  the  flow- 
ers of  grasses.  In  fact  they  are  grasses,  cultivated  for  their 
seeds.  Even  our  Indian-corn  or  maize,  sorghum,  sugar 
cane,  and  the  bamboo  are  grasses. 

A  good  time  to  study  grains  is  in  the  fall.     It  may  be 


FIG.  148.     Timothy  Grass  in  Flower. 
(Notice  the  long  pendulous  stamens.) 


LESSONS   WITH  PLANTS 


355 


possible  to  find  some  belated  plants  still  in 

flower.     If  so,  the  study  of  the  flower  will 

prove  very  interesting.   Note  the  scaly  floral 

envelopes,    the    feathery  stigmas,   and    the 

pendulous  anthers.  Like  the  grasses  the 
grains  are  wind  polli- 
nated. 

Make  a  brief  com- 
parative study  of  the 
botanical  features  of 
the  different  common 
grains,  including  rice. 
Their  commercial  as- 
pects can  be  taken  up 
in  the  geographical 
work,  but  here  is  a 
good  chance  for  corre- 
lation. Refer  to  the  or-  FlG- I49'  GrassFlower- 
igin  of  grains  and  their  cultivation  in  an- 
cient times,  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  In 
all  civilized  nations  the  cereals  are  the 
staff  of  life. 

Study  the  wild  rice  of  our  northern 
lakes  and  swamps.  This  interesting 
plant  produces  grain  that  was  used  by 
the  Indians.  Aquatic  birds,  like  the 
wild  ducks  and  geese,  and  the  various 
marsh  birds  feed  much  upon  this  wild 
grain.  The  seeds  of  many  other  grasses 

are  eaten  by  many  birds. 

Indian  corn  is  worthy  of  special  study,  on  account  of  its 


FIG.  150.    Indian  Corn. 


356 


NATURE-STUDY 


curious  inflorescence.  The  tassel  at  the  top  is  a  cluster  of 
staminate  flowers.  Note  the  great  quantity  of  pollen  that 
shakes  out  when  they  are  ripe.  This  is  carried  by  the  wind 
to  the  silk,  which  forms  the  stigmas 
of  the  pistillate  flowers.  The  ear  is 
really  a  stalk  (cob)  on  which  are 
ranged  in  rows  the  pistillate  flowers, 
which,  however,  are  reduced  to  al- 
most nothing  but  the  pistils  with  the 
very  long  stigmatic  styles,  the  silk.  This 
cluster  of  pistillate 
flowers  is  enclosed  in 
a  protecting  sheath  of 
leaves  (the  husks). 

Sorghum,  sugar  cane, 
and  bamboo  may  be 
studied  in  comparison  with  the  other 
grasses. 

Usejul  Plants  and  Their  Products 

A  series  of  interesting  and  profitable 
lessons  maybe  given  upon  the  plants  that 
furnish  us  with  food,  clothing,  and  shel- 
ter. These  are  especially  appropriate 
in  the  lower  grades,  and  can  be  nicely 
connected  with  the  geography  work. 
Take  up  such  plants  as  the  grains,  in- 
cluding rice  and  Indian-corn,  sorghum  FIG.  152.  Ear  of  Com, 
and  sugar-cane;  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa; 
fruit  and  vegetables;  the  fibre-producing  cotton;  flax  and 
hemp,  and  the  useful  woods.  Illustrate  with  as  much  of 


F.O.  „,.  a 

ers  from  Tassel. 


LESSONS  WITH  'PLANTS  357 

the  plant  as  possible,  pictures,  the  products  in  different 
stages  of  preparation,  etc.  It  would  be  interesting  for  the 
children  to  correspond  with  others  living  in  the  countries 
where  these  plants  are  raised,  in  order  to  make  exchanges 
of  plants  and  other  nature  or  geographical  material.  Hemp 
and  flax  are  easily  obtained,  and  some  of  the  children  would 
no  doubt  ^be  interested  in  trying  to  treat  these  plants  for  the 
preparation  of  the  fibres.  The  cotton  plant  can  be  easily 
raised  in  the  North.  It  may  be  grown  in  a  window  box  in 
the  school.  I  have  several  seasons  started  cotton  in  March, 
transplanted  to  the  garden,  and  grown  the  plant  almost  to 
the  maturity  of  the  pods.  If  taken  in  before  the  early  frosts 
such  plants  can  no  doubt  be  ripened  in  the  house. 

It  is  often  surprising  what  ignorance  is  shown  concerning 
the  common  woods  used  for  furniture,  buildings,  and  fuel. 
It  would  be  well  to  have  the  children  learn  to  recognize  the 
most  common  kinds.  A  good  time  for  this  study  is  in  the 
winter,  when  the  boys  are  sawing  wood  for  the  family  use. 
Let  them  cut  thin  sections  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood.  Per- 
haps specimens  may  be  obtained  at  a  furniture  factory,  or 
other  place  where  much  wood  is  used.  Some  of  this  should 
be  polished  to  show  the  grain.  Collect  pine  of  different 
kinds,  fir,  cedar,  red  and  white  oak,  hard  maple,  white-elm, 
ash,  birch,  hickory,  basswood,  poplar,  walnut,  mahogany, 
rosewood,  ebony,  etc.  Label  these  properly  and  place  in 
the  school  cabinet.  Note  the  hardness,  color,  grain,  elastic- 
ity, strength,  and  other  properties  of  the  wood,  and  refer  to 
the  uses  to  which  it  is  put,  and  the  special  properties  that 
make  it  useful  for  these  purposes.  Such  lessons  would  be 
especially  desirable  in  connection  with  manual  training. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
TREES 

TREES  are  the  giants  of  the  plant  world.  They  consti- 
tute a  large  element  in  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  land- 
scape, and  they  have  always  had  a  great  influence  upon 
man's  existence  and  his  development. 

The  tree  should  be  studied  as  a  flowering  plant.  As  such 
it  has  the  usual  organs  and  functions. 

Trees  send  their  roots  into  the  soil  for  anchorage  and  for 
the  soluble  minerals  and  water.  Some  have  large  tap  roots 
that  strike  deep  into  the  ground,  the  oak  and  butternut,  for 
example.  Others,  like  the  spruce  and  birch,  let  the  roots  run 
out  laterally  not  far  beneath  the  surface.  Hence  they  are 
easily  uprooted  in  storms,  while  the  oak  proverbially  with- 
stands the  blasts.  The  root  extent  of  trees  is  surprisingly 
great,  being  about  as  large  as  the  part  of  the  tree  above 
ground. 

The  wood  of  a  tree  is  made  up  of  concentric  layers,  which 
on  cross  section  appear  as  rings,  called  annual  rings.  The 
age  of  a  tree  may  approximately  be  told  thereby.  For  the 
origin  of  annual  rings  see  page  307.  The  older  heart  wood 
and  the  young  sap  wood  generally  show  a  difference  of  color, 
the  former  usually  being  darker.  The  sap  wood  is  still 
active  in  carrying  water,  and  storing  sap,  but  the  heart  wood, 

though  containing  moisture,  does  not  enter  any  more  into 

358 


TREES  '  359 

the  life  of  the  tree.  The  heart  wood  may  decay  out  and  the 
tree  will  still  flourish,  though,  of  course,  weakened  mechan- 
ically. 

The  bark  is  separated  from  the  wood  by  a  thin  zone  called 
the  cambium  or  growing  layer.  This  makes  new  wood  on  the 
inside,  and  new  bark  on  the  outside.  In  spring  it  is  especially 


FIG.  153.    The  Forest. 

active  and  large  and  can  be  easily  broken,  as  is  seen  when 
the  bark  is  slipped  from  a  willow  twig  in  making  a  whistle. 
The  bark  also  forms  annual  rings,  but  because  of  the 
wearing  off  on  the  outside,  it  is  usually  not  very  thick.  In 
some  trees  it  wears  away  fast  and  the  bark  remains  thin. 
In  others,  notably  the  cork  oak,  it  becomes  thick.  On 
account  of  the  growth  of  the  woody  part  of  the  stem,  the 
old  bark  becomes  too  small  and  is  fissured  in  a  manner 
characteristic  of  each  tree.  The  bark  on  the  young  trees, 
and  on  the  branches  and  twigs  of  old  trees,  generally  has  a 
different  color  from  that  of  the  old,  and  is  of  course  not  so 


36o 


NATURE-STUDY 


thick.  It  is  also  smoother.  When  the  trees  feel  the  touch 
of  spring,  these  thin-barked  branches  show  a  flush  of  color, 
red,  brown,  yellow,  etc.,  that  produces  a  pleasing  effect  in 
the  yet  leafless  forests. 

The  branching  of  trees  also  is  characteristic,  nearly  every 

species  possessing  its  pe- 
culiar type  or  mode  of 
branching.  The  spruces 
hold  their  branches  hori- 
zontally and,  the  upper 
branches  being  younger 
and  shorter,  the  whole 
tree  has  a  tapering,  coni- 
cal appearance.  The  soft 
maple  has  a  short  stem 
which  soon  divides  into 
several  long  main 
branches  that  make  a 
rather  small  angle  with 
each  other,  giving  the 
whole  tree  a  fan-like  ef- 
fect. The  hard  maple 
with 

branches  has  a  very  different  aspect, 
a  very  characteristic  form  due  to  the  way  in  which  the 
branches  grow.  The  typical  form  is  with  several  main 
spreading  branches  which  droop  somewhat  at  the  ends, 
although  there  is  another  common  form  with  more  rounded 
crown  and  irregular  branching. 

One  ought  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  trees  by  the  bark 
and  mode  of  branching  alone. 


FIG.  154.    Red  Oak. 


its     numerous 
The    elms    have 


TREES  361 

Winter  buds  are  best  studied  on  trees.  The  subject  of 
buds,  their  protection  and  their  development,  was  discussed 
on  page  311. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  foliage  of  trees  has  the 
usual  function  of  leaves,  namely,  to  carry  on  transpiration 
and  to  make  starch.  (See  page  313.)  Place  branches  of 
different  kinds  of  trees,  such  as  cherry,  maple,  elm,  and 
others,  in  vessels  containing  equal  quantities  of  water.  The 
twigs  should  have  very  nearly  the  same  leaf  area.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  different  quantities  of  water  are  absorbed, 
and  also  that  some  of  the  twigs  will  be  wilted  sooner  than 
others.  This  illustrates  in  a  very  rough  way  the  rate  of 
transpiration  for  the  different  species.  The  quantity  of  water 
given  off  from  a  tree  is  enormous.  Mr.  Ward  in  his  study 
of  the  oak  estimates  that  an  oak  may  have  700,000  leaves, 
and  give  off  during  the  summer  no  less  than  twelve  tons  of 
water  from  its  foliage.  This  makes  apparent  the  need  of  a 
large  root  system  and  also  of  plenty  of  rainfall. 

The  leaf  arrangement  is  interesting.  There  is  a  prevailing 
symmetry  and  orderliness  in  the  position  of  leaves.  Study 
their  arrangement  on  an  elm  twig  and  a  maple,  and 
compare. 

The  leaf  mosaic,  or  arrangement,  so  as  to  cover  all  open 
space  and  yet  not  shade  other  leaves,  should  be  studied  in 
different  trees.  The  effect  of  one-sided  illumination  should 
be  noted  in  trees  growing  at  the  edge  of  a  forest,  or  where 
shaded  elsewhere. 

For  purposes  of  identification  and  for  its  beauty,  study 
the  venation,  and  also  the  leaf  form  in  different  species.  A 
study  of  the  terms:  netted- veined,  serrate,  crenate,  palmate, 
etc.,  for  definition  merely,  is  not  nature-study.  If  these  things 


362  NATURE-STUDY 

are  studied  it  should  be  with  some  application  in  view,  as  the 
use  of  these  forms  in  identification  of  trees  and  other  plants. 

The  important  function  of  the  leaves  of  a  tree  being  real- 
ized, it  will  be  seen  why  a  tree  should  suffer  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  its  foliage  by  cankerworms,  as  often  happens. 

In  the  autumn,  as  the  soil  is  cooled  and  the  roots  are  chilled, 
the  flow  of  the  sap  is  diminished,  and  the  leaves  are  thereby 
affected.  The  life  processes  are  accordingly  checked.  Most  of 
the  still  useful  substances  in  the  cells  of  the  leaf  are  absorbed 
and  stored  in  the  neighboring  twigs  and  buds.  The  leaf 
cells  are  thus  slowly  dying,  and  undergo  chemical  changes 
that  destroy  the  chlorophyll  and  reveal  the  reds,  yellows,  and 
other  colors  that  were  there  before,  or  are  now  produced 
by  the  processes  of  decay.  Thus  the  leaf  puts  on  the  gor- 
geous colors  of  autumn.  Though  there  is  a  great  variety 
of  hues  in  the  forest  as  a  wnole,  yet  the  individual  species 
as  a  rule  have  certain  colors  peculiar  to  them.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  gradation  of  colors  through  a  certain  gamut.  Elms, 
soft  maples,  and  poplars  put  on  clear  yellow.  Hard  maples 
have  yellow,  orange,  and  red.  The  red  oak  turns  a  choco- 
late brown.  Conifers,  on  the  other  hand,  retain  their  green, 
though  with  subdued  intensity,  in  the  winter. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  frost  causes  the  bright  autumn 
colors.  This  is  not  strictly  true.  The  chilling  of  the  roots, 
even  without  a  frost,  begins  the  work  of  the  fairy  painters. 
The  most  brilliant  colors  of  the  forest  are  produced  in  cool, 
moist  weather,  with  no  frost.  A  severe  frost  will  turn  the  leaves 
sere  and  brown,  instead  of  orange,  red,  and  yellow. 

In  cold  latitudes  the  trees  shed  their  leaves  before  winter. 
The  leaves  would  freeze  anyway  and,  if  not,  the  too  great 
transpiration  when  the  roots  were  furnishing  so  little  sap 


TREES  363 

would  cause  the  death  of  the  tree.  So  it  is  a  good,  though 
to  us  rather  pathetic,  thing  that  the  leaves  fall.  Leaf  fall 
is  preceded  by  the  formation  of  a  corky,  waterproof  layer 
of  cells  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk.  In  due  time  the  leaf 
falls  off.  It  is  not  simply  torn  off  by  the  wind.  The  corky 
layer  referred  to  serves  to  sever  the  leaf  from  the  tree.  Some 
trees,  like  the  maples  and  boxelder,  shed  their  leaves  early; 
others,  like  the  white  oak,  retain  them  sometimes  even 
till  spring.  Conifers  as  a  class  do  not  shed  their  leaves  all 
at  once.  They  do,  however,  lose  their  needles,  which  are 
falling  more  or  less  all  the  time  as  they  mature,  or  are  shaded 
too  much  by  the  younger  growth.  But  since  they  retain 
most  of  their  leaves  green  through  the  winter  we  call  them 
evergreens.  The  tamarack,  a  conifer,  however,  sheds  its 
leaves  in  the  fall.  In  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth  trees 
other  than  conifers  retain  their  leaves  in  winter,  and  only 
shed  them  gradually  like  the  conifers.  The  live  oak  of  the 
southern  states  is  an  evergreen,  but  its  northern  relatives 
must  shed  their  foliage  in  the  fall. 

Trees  are  flowering  plants.  This  is  very  evident  to  all  in 
the  case  of  the  apple,  plum,  hawthorn,  locust,  and  other 
showily  flowered  trees.  Yet  the  elm,  oak,  willow,  and  bass- 
wood,  the  cedar,  and  the  pine,  all  have  flowers.  Though 
minute  and  inconspicuous,  they  are  still  very  interesting 
when  closely  studied,  and  often  very  beautiful.  Some  tree- 
flowers  were  described  on  page  331. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  ways  in  which  trees  dis- 
seminate their  fruits  or  seeds.  Some  fruit  is  edible,  and 
animals  thus  scatter  the  seed.  Some  of  this  fruit  is  pulpy 
and  juicy,  and  others  are  hard  nuts  with  edible  kernels. 
Some  fruit  is  dry  and  inedible,  and  is  then  generally  pro- 


364 


NATURE-STUDY 


vided  with  wing-like  devices  for  dispersal,  or  else  the  seeds 
are  thus  provided.  Elm  and  maple  fruits  have  wings.  The 
seeds  of  the  catalpa  have  feathery  wings,  and  the  cotton- 
wood  seeds  are  covered  with  a  mass  of  down.  Seeds  and 
fruits  of  trees  also  float  upon  the  water  and  may  be  thus 
scattered.  Through  the  agency  of  man,  orchard  and  shade 


FIG.  155.    White  Elm  in  Flower. 

trees  are  planted,  and  on  our  originally  treeless  prairies  there 
are  now  on  nearly  every  farm  planted  groves. 

Trees,  like  other  plants,  are  dependent  upon  temperature, 
moisture,  light,  and  soil.  Temperature  is  one  of  the  chief 
conditions  determining  the  distribution  of  species.  Conifers 
as  a  class  prefer  the  colder  northern  regions  or  the  higher 
altitudes  on  mountains.  There  are,  however,  southern  and 
lowland  species.  The  deciduous  hardwood  trees  also  abound 
chiefly  in  the  colder  temperate  regions.  Some,  like  the  wil- 


TREES 


365 


lows  and  birches,  extend  far  northward.  Mahogany,  teak, 
and  the  palms  flourish  only  in  the  tropics.  Oranges  and 
lemons  thrive  in  California,  but  not  in  Minnesota.  Each 
species  has  a  certain  range  to  which  it  is  limited  principally 
by  the  climate.  On  the  borders  of  these  ranges  the  trees  do 
not  thrive  so  well.  In  high  altitudes,  or  far  northern  lati- 


FiG.  156.    Cottonwoods,  Soft  Maples,  Boxelders,  Elms,  and  Willows  Like  to  Grow 
Along  the  Rivers.    Their  Seeds  are  Carried  by  Wind  and  Water. 

tudes,  the  trees  are  stunted  in  their  growth,  and  finally  a 
limit  is  reached  beyond  which  trees  do  not  grow — the  tree 
line. 

Moisture  is  probably  the  next  most  potent  condition  de- 
termining the  distribution  of  trees.  Some  trees,  like  the 
cypress  of  the  southern  swamps  and  our  northern  tamaracks, 
can  grow  only  where  they  can  stand  with  their  feet  in  the 
water  or  water-soaked  soil.  In  northern  Minnesota  one  may 


366  NATURE-STUDY 

ride  fifty  miles  or  more  through  pure  tamarack  swamps. 
The  soft  maple  and  the  willows  prefer  wet  soil,  and  hence 
do  best  at  the  edges  of  streams,  lakes,  and  sloughs.  Elms 
also  like  a  rather  moist  soil,  and  grow  very  large  in  the  bottom- 
lands of  rivers.  But  many  trees  can  endure  a  dryer  soil. 
The  black  oak  and  Jack  pine  will  grow  in  very  dry  soil,  but 
there  is  a  limit  even  for  these. 

In  a  region  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  less  than  twenty 
inches  trees  grow  only  with  difficulty,  or  not  at  all.  The 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States  was  originally  forest  covered. 
But  as  we  go  west  we  gradually  see  that  the  Big  Woods  are 
less  luxurious  and  flourishing.  The  trees  are  smaller  and 
stand  farther  apart.  On  this  dividing  line  are  straggling 
scrub  oaks  and  poplars,  and  these  also  eventually  disappear. 
In  the  valleys  of  streams  and  on  the  borders  of  lakes,  there 
still  manage  to  exist  on  the  prairies  various  species  of  hard 
woods. 

The  principal  reason  for  the  treeless  condition  of  the  prai- 
ries is  lack  of  rain.  It  is  only  under  artificial  culture 
that  the  young  trees  can  become  established.  Once  well 
rooted  they  manage  to  grow,  though  not  as  large  as  in  better 
watered  regions. 

A  visit  to  a  forest  will  teach  us  much  about  the  life  of  the 
individual  trees,  and  the  forest  as  a  community  of  trees. 
In  our  northern  or  central  wooded  regions  we  find  generally 
a  mixed  stand  of  hard  woods,  such  as  elms,  oaks,  maples, 
ironwood,  hickory,  butternut,  poplar,  etc.  The  trees  are 
of  all  ages,  from  germinating  seedlings  to  patriarchs  cen- 
turies old.  There  are  mature  trees  with  leafy  crowns  50 
to  100  feet  high,  that  have  won  in  the  struggle  for  light. 
There  are  younger  trees  in  the  shade  of  the  older.  Young 


TREES 


367 


growth  as  a  rule  can  endure  more  shade.  There  are  also 
some  low  species,  as  the  blue  beach,  the  dogwoods,  and  others, 
that  are  shade  loving.  These  shade-loving  shrubs  and  the 
young  growth  constitute 
the  underbrush,  which 
in  more  open  forests 
may  be  a  veritable 
jungle. 

In  time  the  tree 
reaches  a  period  of  old 
age,  when  its  vitality 
begins  to  diminish,  and 
it  is  subject  to  the  at- 
tacks of  fungi  and  bac- 
teria of  decay  or  dis- 
ease. The  effects  of 
insects,  such  as  canker- 
worms  that  eat  the  foli- 
age, and  the  bark  and 
wood  boring  larvae,  are 
also  more  serious  then. 
The  heart-wood  decays, 
perhaps,  the  branches 
die  from  the  attacks  of  fungi  and  insects,  and  fall.  Gradually 
the  tree  dies.  Decay  is  hastened.  The  trunk  and  roots  are 
weakened,  and  a  storm  uproots  or  breaks  down  the  tree.  We 
see  many  broken  limbs,  fallen  tree  trunks,  and  old  stumps  lit- 
tering the  forest  floor.  There  they  gradually  rot  and  return  to 
the  soil  the  mineral  matter  and  to  the  air  the  gases  that  were 
used  in  their  upbuilding.  In  this  process  of  decay  many 
fungi  and  bacteria  take  an  active  part.  We  see  shelf  fungi, 


FIG.  157.    A  Shelf  Pore-Fungus. 

(The  chief  part  of  the  fungus  is  inside  the  tree,  causing 

death  and  decay.) 


368  NATURE-STUDY 

toadstools,  fungous  incrustations,  and  lichens  growing  upon 
the  dead  logs  and  stumps,  and  even  on  the  sick,  yet  living, 
trees.  The  noticeable  fungous  growth  which  we  see  on  the 
outside  is  merely  the  fruiting  portion,  which  is  a  part  of 
a  larger  mass  of  fungous  fibres  and  filaments  that  spread 
under  the  bark  and  within  the  wood  of  the  tree.  This 
invisible  part  of  the  fungus  is  what  does  the  chief  work  of 
decay.  Sometimes  by  removing  the  loose  bark  of  a  decay- 
ing log  the  white  vegetative  part  of  the  fungus  may  be  seen. 
Fungi  perform  a  useful  work  in  removing  the  dead  timber 
that  otherwise  would  so  litter  the  ground  that  no  more  growth 
could  come  up.  Besides  the  fungous  decay  there  is  also 
chemical  oxidation  of  the  wood  which  hastens  the  disin- 
tegration. 

The  ground  beneath  the  trees  is  covered  with  a  thick 
deposit  of  matted  and  felted  leaves.  Dig  up  this  leaf  mass. 
Notice  on  the  surface  the  recently  fallen  leaves,  then,  below, 
the  leaves  of  former  years  more  aged  and  decaying.  Still 
farther  down  the  leaves  are  crumbling,  and  soon  the  leaf 
form  can  no  more  be  made  out.  The  lowest  part  is  com- 
posed of  a  light  porous  mass  of  black  material,  which  is  the 
result  of  the  decay  of  the  leaves.  This  black  substance  is 
called  leaf  mould,  and  consists  largely  of  carbon,  which 
gives  it  its  black  color.  This  mould  is  very  fertile,  and  is 
used  by  gardeners  for  potting  and  bedding  plants.  A  forest 
thus  fertilizes  itself  by  the  fall  and  decay  of  its  leaves. 

The  trees  in  a  forest  influence  each  other's  growth.  A 
tree  grown  in  the  open,  with  plenty  of  light  from  all  sides 
and  elbow  room,  is  not  as  tall  and  slender  as  it  would  have 
been  had  it  grown  among  other  trees.  In  the  forest  the 
trees  contend  with  each  other  for  the  light,  and  try  to  over- 


TREES 


369 


top  each  other.  The  one  that  succeeds  will  get  most  light, 
and  therefore  grow  the  best.  In  the  forest  the  lower  branches 
of  the  trees  are  killed  by  the  shade  of  other  trees,  and  in  time 
they  fall  off.  The  wound  left  by  the  branch,  the  knot  hole, 
generally  heals  over  with  a  new  layer  of  wood  and  bark. 
In  the  forest  the  lower  branches  may  not  be  within  thirty 


FIG.  158.    An  Open  Grove  of  Hard  Maples. 
(The  trees  have  rounded  crowns,  low  branches.) 

or  forty  feet  of  the  ground,  while  in  the  open  the  same  tree 
would  have  had  a  short  thick  trunk  with  branches  growing 
low,  and  rounded  crown. 

For  the  first  ten  years,  the  rate  of  growth  of  trees  is  slow. 
It  is  most  rapid  for  several  decades  after  this,  and  slower 
again  later.  How  long  do  trees  live?  That  depends  upon 
the  species.  Some,  like  the  poplars,  are  short  lived,  a  hun- 
dred to  a  hundred  and  fifty  years.  Maples  and  oaks  live 


370  NATURE-STUDY 

several  centuries.  The  cypress  lives  five  hundred  years. 
The  giant  sequoias  of  the  West  probably  saw  the  light 
before  the  Christian  era. 

Forest  Influences  and  Uses 

Forests  exert  some  important  physiographic  influences. 
It  is  still  a  moot  point  how  far  the  presence  of  forests  affects 
the  rainfall  of  a  region.  It  is  probably  more  correct  to  say 
that  there  are  trees  because  it  rains,  than  that  it  rains  in 
places  where  there  are  forests.  The  cooling  effect  of  the 
transpiration  of  a  forest  may  hasten  the  precipitation  of 
passing  clouds.  But  on  the  whole  the  rainfall  has  not 
been  noticeably  affected  in  this  country  by  the  clearing 
away  of  the  forests,  or  the  planting  of  trees  on  the  prairies. 
The  cases  of  Persia,  Spain,  and  other  countries  usually 
mentioned  to  show  that  the  absence  of  extensive  forests 
causes  aridity  of  climate  are  now  considered  rather  doubt- 
ful illustrations,  as  it  is  not  well  proved  that  those  lands  ever 
had  extensively  wooded  areas,  in  historic  times. 

Forests  temper  the  force  of  the  winds,  and  are  very  useful 
as  windbreaks  for  the  hot  winds  of  summer  and  the  cold 
winds,  in  winter. 

Forests  protect  the  soil  from  erosion.  In  level  regions 
this  is  not  so  evident  as  in  hilly  or  mountainous  countries. 
The  hills  should  be  capped  with  forest  growth,  not  only  to 
keep  the  soil  on  the  hills  and  to  prevent  their  being  gullied 
with  water  courses,  but  also  to  protect  the  fertile  valley  lands 
from  the  gravel  and  sand  that  would  otherwise  be  carried 
down  upon  them. 

Forests  conserve  the  rainfall.  The  spongy,  porous  mass  of 
leaf  mould  on  the  floor  of  the  forest  very  materially  acts  as 


TREES  371 

a  check  on  the  flow  of  the  water,  and  it  tends  to  hold  it  ab- 
sorbed a  long  time.  In  this  way,  especially  in  hilly  and 
mountainous  countries,  the  forests  check  the  rapid  off-flow 
of  the  water,  thus  preventing  disastrous  floods  in  the  rivers, 
and  also  making^the  streams  of  more  constant  volume.  The 
water  seaps  out  slowly  under  the  leaf  mould,  or  is  absorbed 
by  the  earth  and  given  up  slowly  in  springs,  long  after  the 


FIG.  159.    A  Denuded  Hill  Showing  Effects  of  Erosion. 

rains  have  ceased.  Hence  the  intermittent  rainfall  will 
appear  as  a  steady  supply  of  the  rivers,  which  therefore  have 
a  more  even  stage  of  water,  a  very  important  point  in  the  navi- 
gation of  many  of  our  streams  and  in  irrigation.  This  effect  of 
forests  is  perhaps  the  most  important.  In  recognition  of  this, 
the  government  has  set  aside  great  forest  areas  in  the  head- 
water regions  of  many  western  streams.  Try  this  experiment : 
Place  one  end  of  a  broad  board  or  trough  in  a  sink,  or  pail, 
and  raise  the  other  end.  Pour  water  on  the  upper  end  from 
a  sprinkler.  Note  how  quickly  it  runs  off  the  board.  Now 


372  NATURE-STUDY 

place  a  mass  of  cotton  batting  on  the  board  and  repeat  the 
experiment.  Note  how  much  more  slowly  the  water  runs  off, 
but  how  much  longer  it  continues  to  trickle  out.  By  placing 
some  leaf  mould  on  the  inclined  board  the  experiment  may 
be  repeated  and  the  retarding  effect  of  the  same  noted. 

One  other  fact  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection. 
Forests  on  the  hills  are  a  perennial  supply  of  fertility  for  the 
lowlands.  The  waters  that  seap  through  the  leaf  mould 
take  up  soluble  matter  and  convey  it  to  the  fields  below. 

In  primitive  times  man  was  very  dependent  upon  forests 
for  fuel,  shelter,  fruits,  nuts,  roots,  and  game.  And  man  to- 
day makes  much  more  use  of  forests  than  did  his  primitive  fore- 
fathers. Forests  are  used  to-day  as  windbreaks  and  shelter  for 
man  and  beast,  as  game  preserves,  as  pleasure  parks,  and 
as  summer  and  health  resorts.  The  wood  is  used  for  fuel 
for  our  homes,  factories,  and  kilns.  The  fuel  value  of  our 
forests  is  enormous.  Even  coal,  derived  from  plants,  may 
be  considered  under  this  head. 

The  railroads  require  millions  of  ties  and  telegraph  poles. 
Vast  amounts  of  timber  are  used  for  telephone  poles  and  for 
fence  posts.  Large  timbers  are  used  for  bridge  and  founda- 
tion pilings  and  for  supporting  pillars  in  mines.  Small, 
slender  saplings  are  used  by  the  million  for  hoops,  bean  and 
hop  poles. 

A  number  of  industries  are  dependent  upon  forests.  The 
charcoal  industry,  once  very  important,  is  one.  Oak  and 
hemlock  bark  are  used  for  tanning  leather.  In  southern 
states  the  pitch  and  turpentine  industry  flourishes  in  the 
pitch  pine  regions.  In  the  northern  states  the  maple  sugar 
industry  is  carried  on  in  forests  of  hard  maple.  Different 
kinds  of  nut  trees  afford  profitable  industries  in  various  parts 


TREES  373 

of  the  land.  Every  year  great  numbers  of  balsams,  spruce, 
and  other  evergreens  are  cut  and  sold  for  Christmas  trees. 
Forests  are  used  for  pasturing  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 

A  great  deal  of  cheap  paper,  used  especially  in  newspapers, 
is  now  made  from  wood  pulp.  Soft  woods,  such  as  poplar 
and  spruce,  are  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  macerated  or 
ground  into  a  pulp  which  is  pressed  and  rolled  into  paper. 
Considering  the  uselessly  large  size  of  our  metropolitan  pa- 
pers, we  can  readily  see  that  in  order  to  supply  the  demand 
for  paper  large  areas  of  forest  land  are  being  denuded. 

The  greatest  use  we  make  of  forests  is  for  lumber  for  build- 
ings, bridges,  fences,  boxes,  sidewalks,  furniture,  and  many 
other  purposes.  This  demand  is  rapidly  destroying  our 
forests.  We  use  over  30,000,000,000  feet  of  lumber  per 
year  in  this  country,  of  which  75  per  cent,  is  pine  and 
other  conifers.  This  is  three  times  as  much  lumber  per 
capita  as  is  used  by  Europeans.  Our  " frame"  houses 
illustrate  the  great  use  we  make  of  lumber.  When  our 
forests  are  gone,  more  costly  yet  more  enduring  brick  and 
stone  will  be  used.  But  this  may  force  into  rented  tene- 
ments or  apartment  houses  a  large  part  of  our  population, 
who  otherwise  would  have  built  separate  wooden  dwell- 
ing-houses. The  destruction  of  our  forests  may  thus  be 
seen  to  have  an  important  social  effect. 

White  pine  is  the  king  of  the  lumber  trees.  It  is  common 
in  Minnesota  and  other  northern  states  and  in  Canada. 
Maine  is  called  the  Pine  Tree  State,  but  it  is  no  longer 
so  in  fact,  for  the  great  white  pine  forests  there  have  been 
practically  destroyed.  Later,  Michigan  held  chief  place  in 
white  pine  production,  then  Wisconsin,  and  now  it  is  Minne- 
sota, though  even  here  the  end  of  the  industry  is  in  sight. 


374  NATURE-STUDY 

White  pine  is  so  valuable  because  it  is  light,  soft,  and  easy 
to  cut  and  nail,  durable,  and  insect  proof. 

In  the  South  the  Georgia  longleaf,  and  the  North  Carolina 
hard  pines  are  the  chief  woods  used  for  lumber.  These  are 
often  used  in  the  North  for  interior  finishing,  ceiling,  and 
flooring.  They  are  yellow  pines. 

The  cypress  of  the  southern  swamps  is  also  extensively 
used  now  for  lumber.  In  the  North  the  spruce  is  a  common 
building  stuff,  and  hemlock,  though  poor  in  quality,  is  also 
used.  In  the  western  coast  forests  the  redwood  is  the 
chief  lumber  tree.  It  is  brownish,  soft,  and  very  durable, 
and  is  largely  used  for  shingles. 

The  hard  woods  are  more  difficult  to  saw,  plane,  and  nail, 
but  they  are  stronger,  and  tougher  than  the  pines,  etc.,  and 
therefore  find  many  applications.  They  also  show  a  fine 
grain,  and  take  polish  well,  hence  they  are  much  used  for 
interior  finishing  and  for  furniture.  Heavy  oak  timbers 
enter  into  the  construction  of  buildings  and  bridges. 

These  are  some  of  the  chief  uses  of  lumber.  The  industry 
in  its  various  stages  is  an  interesting  one  to  study.  Chil- 
dren like  to  learn  about  lumber  camps,  the  felling  of  the 
trees,  the  dragging  of  the  logs  to  the  rivers,  the  driving 
down  the  streams,  the  log  booms,  the  saw-mills,  lumber  yards, 
the  shipment  of  the  lumber,  and  the  various  uses  to  which 
it  is  put.  It  would  be  instructive  to  trace  a  white-pine  tree 
from  the  forest  to  the  various  purposes  for  which  it  is  used. 

Arbor  Day  —  Beautifying  School- grounds 

Arbor  Day  is  now  universally  and  fittingly  observed  by 
the  schools.  Secretary  Wilson  in  his  report  in  the  1899 
"  Year  Book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  "  says :  "  Prom- 


TREES  375 

inent  among  the  agencies  for  interesting  the  children  in 
forest  matters  is  the  observance  of  Arbor  Day.  Instituted 
in  Nebraska  in  1872  by  Hon.  J.  Sterling  Morton,  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  1893-1897,  Arbor  Day  has  made  its  way  from 
state  to  state  until,  at  the  beginning  of  1900,  provision  for 
its  observance  has  been  made  in  every  state  and  territory. 
Its  central  idea  is  the  planting  of  trees  by  school  children  on 
dates  fixed  by  the  governors  of  the  various  states  or  by  other 
authorities.  The  planting  is  usually  accompanied  by  ex- 
ercises, sometimes  elaborate,  intended  to  impress  upon  the 
children  the  beauty  and  usefulness  of  trees,  and  to  encourage 
the  care  and  preservation  alike  of  shade  trees  and  forests. 
While  the  planting  accomplished  may  have  very  little  eco- 
nomic value,  the  institution  of  Arbor  Day  may  fairly  be  said 
to  exercise  immense  influence  in  exciting  affection  and 
respect  for  trees  in  the  coming  generations,  and  so  to  prepare 
a  body  of  sentiment  which  will  assist  powerfully  hereafter  to 
bring  about  the  general  practice  of  conservative  forestry." 
The  broader  purpose  and  the  great  practical  importance  of 
Arbor  Day  is  thus  seen  from  these  words  of  Secretary  Wilson. 
But  Arbor  Day  has  another  and  more  direct  value. 
Through  its  observance  the  grounds  of  many  schools  can 
be  improved  and  beautified.  In  a  circular  addressed  to 
the  county  superintendents,  the  State  Superintendent  of 
the  schools  of  Illinois,  in  1903,  makes  the  statement  that 
there  were  in  that  year  still  over  two  thousand  schools  with- 
out a  single  shade  tree.  Probably  a  much  greater  number 
were  sadly  in  need  of  improvement  as  far  as  the  grounds 
were  concerned.  The  conditions  of  the  country,  and  even 
village  and  city,  schools  are  similar  throughout  the  United 
States.  Not  enough  has  been  done  to  make  the  school-houses 


376  NATURE-STUDY 

and  grounds  attractive  or  *  even  respectable.  There  are 
many  "ragged  beggars"  still  sunning  at  the  country  cross- 
roads. Many  jails  have  finer  grounds,  and  consist  of  more 
substantial,  and  elegant  buildings  than  our  country  and 
village  schools.  Most  farmers  surround  their  homes  with 
groves  and  flowers,  but  the  country  school  across  the  road 
where  their  children  go  is  barren  and  ugly.  No  wonder 


FIG.  160.    A  Typical  Country  School— in  Need  of  Shade  Trees. 

that  so  many  children  dislike  to  go  to  school.  Make  the 
school-houses  attractive  inside  and  out,  surround  them  with 
shade  trees,  shrubbery,  flowers,  and  grassy  lawns,  and  the 
pupils  will  be  drawn  to  such  schools  rather  than  repelled 
by  their  barrenness  and  ugliness. 

Since  the  regular  observance  of  Arbor  Day  much  has 
been  done  to  make  the  surroundings  of  the  rural  and  town 
schools  more  attractive.  Much,  however,  has  been  done 
poorly  and  without  system.  The  way  to  improve  a  school- 


TREES 


377 


ground  is  to  begin  at  the  beginning.  The  ground  should 
first  be  properly  graded  and  levelled,  so  that  it  is  even 
and  the  drainage  right.  Stumps  and  stones  should  be 
removed.  Perhaps  it  is  necessary  to  bring  good,  black 
earth  to  put  on  poor  soil,  if  it  is  desired  to  grow  grass.  There 
should  be  a  grass  plot,  at  least,  directly  in  front  of  the  school- 
house.  The  children  should  be  required  to  respect  this 


FIG.  161.    A  Beautiful  Farm  Homestead  Just  Opposite  the  School. 

area  and  permit  the  grass  to  grow.  On  the  playground 
proper  the  grass  will  probably  not  grow.  This  should  be 
well  drained  and  covered  with  sand  or  gravel,  so  that  even 
in  wet  weather  it  will  be  possible  to  play  upon  it  without 
tracking  much  dirt  into  the  school. 

The  preparing  of  the  grounds  and  the  planting  of  trees 
should  not  be  simply  a  matter  for  the  teacher  and  pupils, 
but  to  ensure  success  the  school  officers  and  the  patrons  of 
the  district  should  help.  There  should  be  a  system  agreed 


378  NATURE-STUDY 

upon  by  the  patrons  at  a  district  meeting.  Competent  men 
should  be  employed  to  prepare  the  ground  and  to  select 
and  plant  the  trees,  for  the  teacher  and  pupils  are  gen- 
erally not  good  tree  planters.  The  teacher  should  take  an 
active  interest  in  all  this.  She  may  be  of  great  influence  in 
the  community,  and  by  tactful  suggestions  she  may  get  the 
people  of  the  district  to  assist  her  in  the  work  of  improve- 
ment. If  all  cannot  be  aroused,  perhaps  a  few  may  be. 
These  could  bring  their  teams,  with  ploughs  and  scrapers, 
some  Friday  afternoon  or  Saturday,  and  with  the  help  of  the 
children  could  prepare  the  grounds  fairly  well. 

The  tree  planting  should  not  be  done  in  a  haphazard  or 
promiscuous  way,  but  should  be  well  thought  out.  The 
kinds  of  trees  to  be  planted  should  be  well  chosen,  not 
with  a  view  to  rapid  growth  alone,  but  to  the  beauty  and 
suitability  of  the  tree  in  after  years.  Too  many  school- 
grounds  have  short-lived,  undesirable  soft  maples,  boxelders, 
and  cottonwoods  planted  upon  them  simply  because  they 
grow  fast.  In  general,  trees  should  not  be  planted  upon  the 
playground  proper,  where  they  would  interfere  with  the  games 
of  the  children,  but  should  be  placed  along  the  boundaries 
of  the  school-grounds  and  around  the  unsightly  outbuildings. 
On  the  prairie,  where  the  winds  of  winter  and  spring  are 
strong  and  penetrating,  there  should  be  thick  belts  of  trees 
on  the  windward  sides.  These  will  act  as  windbreaks. 
Here  the  trees  should  be  planted  in  several  rows.  In  plant- 
ing trees  on  the  edges  of  the  grounds,  spaces  or  gaps  should 
be  left  for  viewing  the  landscape  beyond,  especially  on  the 
lee  sides.  The  trees  may  be  planted  in  straight  rows,  or 
arranged  irregularly  in  clumps,  to  give  a  more  natural  effect. 
The  latter  is  best  on  large  grounds.  The  front  of  the  grounds 


TREES 


379 


should  not  be  planted  with  continuous  belts  of  trees  so  as  to 
obstruct  the  view  of  the  school-house. 

Shrubbery  is  very  effective  on  school-grounds.  It  may 
be  grown  on  the  borders  of  the  belts  of  trees,  and  in  the 
corners  and  around  the  outhouses.  Hedges  also  of  low 
shrubs  may  be  grown  along  the  front  of  the  grounds. 

In  selecting  trees  be  careful  to  take  those  adapted  for  the 
soil  and  moisture  conditions  that  prevail  on  the  grounds. 
Among  the  trees  best  adapted  to  various  soils,  and  beautiful 
and  long-lived,  are  the  elms,  maples,  and  oaks.  Walnut, 
butternut,  chestnut,  beech,  birch,  mountain  ash,  pines,  bal- 
sams, cedars,  and  spruces  should  also  be  planted  for  variety 
and  beauty.  If  the  grounds  are  extensive  other  trees  may 
be  planted  for  study  and  experimental  purposes.  The  trees 
on  the  schoolgrounds  furnish  many  topics  for  nature  lessons. 
On  a  large  school-ground  fruit  trees  of  various  kinds  could 
be  grown.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  some  of  the  trees  by 
groups,  that  is,  have  clumps  of  elms,  maples,  pines,  etc. 
This  makes  a  more  beautiful  and  striking  effect.  Ever- 
greens especially  should  be  planted  in  groups.  These  look 
well  in  the  corners  at  the  back  of  the  grounds  and  around 
the  outhouses,  and  they  also  afford  shelter  and  nesting  places 
for  birds.  In  beginning  a  school-ground  plantation  there  is 
no  objection  to  the  planting  of  fast-growing  trees  like  box- 
elder,  poplars,  cottonwood,  and  catalpa,  providing  these 
are  not  the  only  kinds.  If  other  more  lasting  and  beautiful 
trees  are  planted  at  the  same  time,  the  more  rapidly  grow- 
ing kinds  will  afford  pleasant  shade  while  the  slower  growing 
kinds  are  small.  But  as  these  grow  tall  the  less  desirable 
kinds  should  be  cut  out. 

There  are  many  ornamental  shrubs  that  may  be  planted. 


38o  NATURE-STUDY 

The  elder,  gooseberry,  dogwood,  waahoo,  hawthorns,  holly, 
and  roses  are  pretty  wild  shrubs.  Among  desirable  culti- 
vated shrubs  are  lilacs,  snowball,  flowering  currant,  bush 
honeysuckle,  barberry,  spirea,  hydrangea,  etc. 

Vines  also  may  be  very  effectively  used  in  hiding  unsight- 
ly buildings,  old  stumps,  fences,  etc.  Our  common  wood- 
bine or  Virginia  creeper  is  one  of  the  most  easily  grown  and 
hardy.  The  variety  that  forms  adhesive  disks  at  the  ends 
of  the  tendrils  with  which  it  holds  to  the  walls,  etc.,  is  the 
best,  as  it  does  not  need  artificial  support.  The  bittersweet 
grape-vine  and  climbing  honeysuckle  are  other  excellent 
vines.  The  berry-bearing  shrubs  and  vines  attract  the 
birds. 

It  is  best  to  get  trees  for  planting  from  a  nursery.  If  the 
whole  plan  is  to  be  carried  out  in  one  year  the  planting  must 
be  done  by  experienced  men  hired  by  the  school-board  for 
the  purpose.  If  only  a  single  tree  or  a  few  trees  are  to  be 
planted,  it  would  still  be  better  for  one  who  understands  to 
do  the  work.  But  in  case  it  is  impossible  to  get  such  prac- 
tised assistance,  the  teacher  and  pupils,  by  observing  strictly 
the  following  rules,  may  succeed  in  successfully  raising  a 
tree.  Too  often  the  Arbor  Day  planting  is  simply  an  illus- 
tration of  how  not  to  do  it,  and  there  are  too  many  dead  or 
dying  trees  thus  planted  that  are  simply  an  irony  on  the 
occasion.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  transplant  a  tree 
so  that  it  will  not  suffer  too  much  injury,  but  even  under  the 
best  conditions' transplanting  is  a  severe  shock  to  it.  If  trees 
are  bought  at  a  nursery  they  will  probably  be  properly  dug 
up  and  prepared  for  transplanting.  They  may  be  got  from 
the  forest  as  well.  In  general,  younger  trees  are  more  suc- 
cessfully transplanted.  For  windbreaks,  trees  two  or  three 


TREES    '  381 

years  old  should  be  planted.  For  other  purposes  older 
trees,  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  are  better.  In 
digging  up  a  tree,  try  to  keep  roots  of  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  length.  Mutilate  the  roots  as  little  as  possible,  and 
leave  many  small  rootlets.  Cut  off  broken  or  injured 
roots,  and  cut  off  most  of  the  branches,  as  otherwise  too 
many  leaves  would  be  produced  for  the  roots  to  supply 
with  water.  Elms  may  even  have  all  the  branches  removed 
and  present  the  appearance  of  bare  poles. 

Trees  are  best  planted  in  the  dormant  condition  in  early 
spring,  before  the  leaves  are  out.  For  this  reason,  Arbor 
Day  is  usually  set  in  April  or  early  May.  It  is  not  at  all 
essential,  however,  that  the  school  planting  be  done  upon 
the  day  set  by  the  governor. 

The  place  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted  should  be  ready 
for  the  tree  as  soon  as  it  is  dug  up.  The  hole  should  be 
large  enough  to  give  room  for  the  roots  to  lie  in  their  natural 
position  without  being  cramped.  Unless  the  soil  is  very  damp 
the  tree  should  be  set  from  one  to  three  inches  deeper  than  it 
grew  before  transplanting.  If  the  soil  is  very  hard  and  clayey 
it  should  be  broken  up  well  below  the  tree  for  some  distance, 
and  also  around  it,  so  that  the  roots  may  penetrate  more  easily. 
By  digging  extra  deep  and  throwing  in  broken  tile,  stones, 
etc.,  and  then  covering  with  good  loamy  soil,  both  proper 
drainage  and  good  soil  are  provided  for  the  young  tree.  In  case 
the  soil  is  very  sandy  and  poor,  a  larger  hole  should  be  dug 
and  filled  in  with  good  loam  to  give  the  tree  a  proper  start. 

The  tree  to  be  transplanted  should  be  quickly  transferred  to 
the  new  location,  after  being  dug  up,  for  it  is  very  important 
that  the  tender  roots  and  rootlets  should  not  become  dry  and 
thus  be  killed.  If  far  to  carry,  cover  well  with  moist  straw, 


NATURE-STUDY 


excelsior,  or  burlap.  Small  trees  may  be  carried  in  a  pail 
or  other  vessel  of  water.  Set  the  tree  in  the  prepared  hole. 
Throw  in  fine  soil  well  among  the  roots.  After  the  roots  are 
covered  several  inches  press  the  soil  down 
well  with  a  rammer  or  with  the  heel.  If 
the  soil  is  very  dry,  several  pailfuls  of 
water  should  now  be  poured  on.  Repeat 
the  process  of  throwing  in  several  inches 
of  earth  and  stamping.  The  last  two  or 
three  inches  should  not  be  put  in  hard, 
but  left  as  loose  as  possible,  to  serve  as  a 
mulch  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the 
moisture  about  the  roots.  A  surface  ap- 
plication of  well-rotted  manure  acts  as  a 
good  mulch  and  also  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  trees  must  not  be  too  much 
crowded,  else  they  will  become  slender. 
They  grow  more  stocky  and  with  more 
rounded  crowns  if  they  have  plenty  of 
room  and  light.  In  general,  trees  should 
be  planted  not  closer  than  twenty  or 
thirty  feet,  unless  close  grouping  is  es- 
pecially desired.  As  the  trees  get  larger 
they  may  have  to  be  thinned  out,  the 
finest  and  most  regular  being  retained. 
After  a  tree  is  planted  it  should  not  be  neglected  and 
allowed  to  die.  In  seasons  of  prolonged  drought  newly 
planted  trees  are  very  apt  to  die  from  lack  of  moisture. 
Daily  watering,  a  pailful  or  so,  is  not  of  much  use.  When 
trees  are  watered  they  should  be  given  about  a  barrelful  at 
a  time,  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Careful  cultivation  and 


FIG.  162.  Wild  Cherry 
Healing  Wounds. 

(  Cuts  wantonly  made  to 
remove  staples  holding 
a  barbed  wire  fence.) 


TREES    '  383 

loosening  of  the  ground  between  and  around  the  trees  will 
keep  in  the  soil  moisture,  and  do  more  good  generally  than 
watering.  Perhaps  a  neighboring  patron  or  his  boys  will 
agree  to  take  care  of  the  transplanted  trees  on  the  school- 
ground,  during  the  critical  period  of  the  first  summer. 

Trees  close  to  the  playground,  where  they  are  apt  to  be 
injured  in  the  play  of  the  children,  should  have  guards  placed 
around  them.  The  children  should  be  taught  to  take  a  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  school-ground  trees,  and  feel  a  desire  to 
take  care  of  them.  In  general,  they  may  be  safely  trusted  to 
respect  the  improvements  made  on  the  school-grounds. 

I  would  suggest  that  some  of  the  seedlings  of  oaks,  wal- 
nuts, elms,  maples,  pines,  and  fruit  trees  started  by  the 
children  in  the  window  boxes  be  transplanted  to  the  grounds. 
If  these  little  trees  can  be  safely  raised  to  a  self-supporting 
condition,  it  will  speak  well  for  the  interest  and  care  of  the 
pupils  in  their  development.  If  a  record  of  these  seedlings 
could  be  kept  in  the  school,  it  would  be  very  interesting  in 
subsequent  years  to  those  who  took  part  in  the  planting. 

Arbor  Day  may  be  made  the  occasion  also  for  pruning 
and  trimming  the  trees  already  planted.  Perhaps  there 
are  enough  trees  on  the  grounds.  Perhaps  there  are  too 
many.  If  the  grounds  and  the  house  are  too  much  shaded 
some  of  the  trees  should  be  removed.  Too  many  trees  about 
the  school-house  are  often  as  bad  as  too  few.  In  many  cases 
school-houses  are  built  in  the  woods.  Then  the  work  be- 
comes one  of  clearing  the  grounds.  This  should  be  done 
with  judgment.  Not  all  the  trees  should  be  cut  away,  but 
those  on  the  edges  of  the  ground  and  elsewhere,  if  desirable, 
should  be  left.  Preserve  the  best  ones. 

If  nothing  remains  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  tree  planting, 


384  NATURE-STUDY 

Arbor  Day  may  be  utilized  for  a  general  cleaning  up  of  the 
grounds.  Rake  up  the  rubbish,  burn  or  remove  it.  Repair 
the  fences,  etc.,  make  flower-beds,  and  transplant  the  flowers 
started  in  the  window-boxes.  (See  page  258  on  school  gard- 
ening. Flower  lists,  page  295.) 
An  excellent  thing  to  do  on  Arbor  Day  is  to  plant  perennial 


FIG.  163.    A  Street  Beautified  by  Shade  Trees. 

plants,  such  as  bleeding-heart,  peony,  larkspur,  honey- 
suckle, columbine,  iris,  tulip,  lily,  golden-glow,  holly- 
hock, etc.  These  will  do  well  with  very  little  atten- 
tion, and  come  up  year  after  year.  The  bulbs  or  roots 
may  either  be  bought  or  contributed  by  the  children  from 
their  home  gardens.  (See  list  of  perennials  and  bulbs 
page  296.) 

It  is  customary  on  Arbor  Day  to  render  a  special  pro- 
gramme relative  to  the  planting  and  the  uses  of  trees.  This 
may  either  wholly  or  in  part  be  given  in  the  open.  This 


TREES     «  385 

might  be  made  an  occasion  for  inviting  the  patrons  and 
civic  authorities,  and  good  might  be  accomplished  outside 
of  the  school  in  the  way  of  civic  improvement  in  beautifying 
streets,  lawns,  and  parks.  The  following  are  suggestions  for 
Arbor  Day  programmes :  Purpose  of  Arbor  Day.  Origin  of 
Arbor  Day.  *  Our  forests.  Uses  of  forests.  Uses  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  woods.  Destruction  of  our  forests.  Forestry 
laws.  What  is  forestry?  Ornamental  and  shade  trees. 
Windbreaks.  The  nursery.  Descriptions  of  certain  trees. 
Trees  on  city  streets.  Trees  and  school-grounds.  The 
beauty  of  trees.  Pleasures  derived  from  trees.  Trees  and 
literature,  with  selections.  Trees  and  history.  How  old 
some  trees  are.  A  development  lesson  on  a  certain  tree. 
These  topics  may  be  presented  by  the  pupils  as  essays  or 
recitatiqns.  On  the  grounds  perhaps  there  might  be  pro- 
cessions and  tree  planting  songs.  Let  there  be  talks  by 
practical  tree  planters,  farmers,  nursery  men,  and  others 
interested  in  the  raising  and  preservation  of  trees.  Perhaps 
an  illustrated  lecture  on  trees  or  forestry  may  be  arranged 
for  in  the  evening,  to  which  pupils  and  parents  could  come. 
In  graded  schools  several  rooms,  or  all,  may  unite  in  these 
exercises.  An  excursion  to  some  picturesque  wooded  spot, 
or  a  park,  would  be  very  appropriate.  Remember  that 
Arbor  Day  can,  and  should,  be  made  an  opportunity  for 
disseminating  a  knowledge  of  trees  and  forestry,  and  for 
cultivating,  in  the  patrons  as  well  as  the  school  children,  a 
desire  for  home  and  city  improvement  by  planting  trees  and 
flowers. 

Teachers  should  send  for  the  following  pamphlets  on  Arbor 
Day:  " Arbor  Day:  Its  History  and  Observance,"  by  N.  H. 
Eggleston,  and  "  Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds, "  by 


386 


NATURE-STUDY 


Wm.  L.  Hall,  both  of  which  may  be  secured  free  of  charge 
from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington. Bulletin  160,  "  Rural  School  Grounds,"  is  also  help- 
ful, and  may  be  secured  from  the  Cornell  Agricultural  experi- 
ment Station,  Ithaca,  New  York.  These  have  important 
suggestions  for  tree  and  flower  planting,  and  also  for  pro- 


FIG.  164.    Trees  and  Vines  Improve  a  House. 

grammes.  Send  also  to  your  State  Superintendent  of  Schools 
for  circulars  on  Arbor  Day.  The  state  superintendents, 
of  Wisconsin,  New  York,  Illinois,  and  others  have  issued 
for  years  interesting  and  suggestive  circulars  for  Arbor 
Day  programmes. 

In  many  schools  the  features  of  Bird  Day  are  very  appro- 
priately combined  with  those  of  Arbor  Day. 


TREES  387 

PLANTING  A  TREE 

What  does  he  plant  who  plants  a  tree? 
He  plants  a  friend  of  sun  and  sky; 
He  plants  a  flag  of  breezes  free; 
The  shaft  of  beauty  towering  high; 
He  plants  a  home  to  heaven  anigh 
For  song  and  mother  croon  of  bird, 
In  hushed  and  happy  twilight  heard — 
The  treble  of  heaven's  harmony — 
These  things  plants  he  who  plants  a  tree. 

What  does  he  plant  who  plants  a  tree  ? 
He  plants  cool  shade  and  tender  rain, 
And  seed  and  bud  of  days  to  be, 
And  years  that  fade  and  flush  again; 
He  plants  the  glory  of  the  plain; 
He  plants  the  forest's  heritage; 
The  harvest  of  the  coming  age; 
The  joy  that  unborn  eye  shall  see — 
These  things  he  plants  who  plants  a  tree. 

What  does  he  plant  who  plants  a  tree? 
•He  plants  in  sap,  and  leaves  and  wood, 
In  love  of  home  and  loyalty, 
And  far-cast  thoughts  of  civil  good — 
His  blessings  on  the  neighborhood. 
Who  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand 
Holds  all  the  growth  of  all  our  land — 
A  nation's  growth  from  sea  to  sea 
Stirs  in  his  heart  who  plants  a  tree. 

— RICHARD  WATSON  GILDER. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
FLOWERLESS   PLANTS. 

A  BRIEF  study  should  be  made  of  the  commoner  and  typi- 
cal flowerless  plants.  Most  plant  species  belong  to  this  class, 
yet,  on  account  of  their  generally  small  size  and  inconspicu- 
ous appearance,  they  are  far  less  noticed  by  the  average 
observer  than  the  more  showy  flowering  plants,  such  as 
"flowers,"  grasses,  weeds,  and  trees. 

It  is  impossible  to  teach  children  the  detailed  differences 
between  flowering  and  flowerless  plants.  This  essential  dif- 
erence,  however,  should  be  brought  out,  that  the  former 
generally  have  conspicuous  flowers — seed-forming  organs, 
while  the  latter  reproduce  more  prominently  by  means  of 
cells,  called  spores,  which  are  not  formed  like  seeds.  The 
advanced  botanical  student,  however,  knows  that  there  is  a 
less  conspicuous  process  of  reproduction  in  the  flowerless 
plants  which  is  essentially  the  same  as  seed  formation  in 
higher  plants. 

Ferns  are  the  largest  common  flowerless  plants,  and  there 
is  a  great  and  beautiful  variety  of  them,  brakes,  spleenworts, 
shield  ferns,  maidenhair,  polypody,  etc.  It  is  a  pleasant 
thing  to  collect  and  study  ferns  in  their  native  haunts.  Brakes 
and  maidenhair  ferns  flourish  abundantly  on  rich,  wooded 
hill-slopes.  With  their  great  fronds  the  brakes  add  a  trop- 
ical effect  to  our  northern  woods.  The  beautifully  curled 


FLOWERLESS   PLANTS 


389 


"fiddleheads"  of  the  young  fronds  are  interesting.  On 
rocky  ledges  and  cliffs  are  found  various  spleenworts  and 
cliff  brakes,  and  in  the  marshy  lowlands  are  shield  ferns  and 
others. 

Ferns  make  fine  herbarium  mounts.  As  far  as  possible 
get  the  children  interested  in  col- 
lecting, pressing,  and  naming  the 
ferns  of  their  locality.  Have 
them  notice  well  the  habitat  of 
each.  Let  them  dig  up  fern  root- 
stalks  and  plant  them  in  a  shady 
corner  by  the  school-house  or  at 
home.  The  north  side  of  build- 
ings is  a  good  place.  The  ground 
should  be  rich,  containing  much 
decayed  wood.  Chips,  sawdust, 
leaves,  or  rotten  logs  and  stumps 
should  be  buried  in  the  soil  where  the  ferns  are  to  grow. 
Maidenhair,  and  other  wood  ferns,  and  the  cliff  brake  do 
well  in  window-boxes. 

Examine  the  rootstalk  and  note  the  young  shoots.  Observe 
the  way  the  frond  is  lobed  and  dissected.  Examine  the 
under  side  of  a  ripe  frond,  and  note  the  little  spots  on  the 
lobes.  These  are  spore  (not  seed)  cases.  Shake  out  some 
of  these  spores  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper  and  note  their 
minuteness  and  great  number.  Try  to  raise  some  fern  from 
the  spores.  Sow  the  spores  on  some  earth  in  a  flower  pot, 
and  wash  them  in  by  sprinkling  with  water.  Cover  with  a 
piece  of  glass  and  keep  moist  and  warm. 

A  curious  plant  often  found  on  sandy,  or  gravelly,  wet  banks 
along  rivers  and  railroads  is  the  Horsetail  or  Scouring  Rush 


FIG.  165.    Spore  Dots  on  the  Under 

Side  of  a  Fern  Leaflet. 

(  Photomicrograph.) 


390 


NATURE-STUDY 


(Equisetum)t  Early  in  the  spring  there  arise  from  a  creep- 
ing rootstalk  flesh-colored  stalks  with  cone-shaped  struct- 
ures on  top.  The  stalk  is  jointed  and  at  the  joints  are  circles 
of  scale-like  leaves.  The  cone  at  the  end  bears  the  spores. 
These  can  be  shaken  out  when  ripe.  There  is  another  kind 

of  stalk  sent  up 
later  in  the  sea- 
son when  the 
spore-bearing 
stalk  is  dead. 
This  is  green,  is 
also  jointed,  and 
in  the  common 
field  horsetail  is 
much  branched 
at  the  joints. 
The  stem  and 
the  branches 
bear  small  scale- 
like  leaves  which, 

FIG.  166.    A  Moss-covered  Boulder.  however,  are  not 

adapted  to  form  starch,  as  they  are  not  green.  The  stem 
is  green,  and  it  makes  the  starch  which  is  stored  in  the 
rootstalk  and  in  the  new  buds  or  shoots  of  the  spore-bearing 
stalks.  One  species  of  Equisetum  has  unbranched  stems, 
which  ,are  jointed  and  grooved  and  have  a  very  gritty  feel- 
ing due  to  silica  in  the  tissues.  On  account  of  this  gritti- 
ness  the  plant  was  formerly  used  for  sandpaper,  and  was 
called  the  scouring  rush. 

The  mosses  constitute  another  great  class  of  flowerless 
plants.     Gather  with  the  children  mosses  of  different  kinds. 


FLOWERLESS   PLANTS 


391 


Note  the  great  variety  of  form  and  also  the  great  variety  of 
habitats,  that  is,  the  places  and  conditions  where  they  grow, 
on  trees,  on  moist  ground,  on  rocks,  on  cliffs.  Note  the 
general  leafy  structure,  the  hair-roots,  and  the  varied  spore- 
cases  at  the  top  of  the 
stems.  Examine  these 
cases  with  a  magnifying 
glass  and  note  the  inter- 
esting ways  in  which  the 
cases  open,  by  valves, 
chinks,  and  lids.  Can 
you  see  the  spores  ? 

Growing  in  wet  places 
on  ledges  and  cliffs,  and 
on  boards  near  springs 
or  in  damp  ravines  in 
shady  places,  are  flat, 
lobed  plants,  the  Liver- 
worts. These  are  at- 
tached by  numerous 
hair-roots.  On  the  up- 
per surface  may  be  seen 

plainly  the  large  breath-       FlG-l67-     Liverwort  Encrusting  a  Dark,  Moist  Cliff. 

ing  pores.  The  surface  of  the  plant  is  marked  off  in  diamond- 
shaped  areas,  the  breathing  pores  being  at  their  centres. 
At  maturity  one  will  find  umbrella-like  projections  growing 
on  the  plant.  These  are  the  spore  holders.  There  also 
may  be  little  cup-like  structures  with  egg-like  masses  in 
them.  These  also  are  reproductive  devices,  the  little  egg- 
like  masses  breaking  off,  washing  away,  and  germinating 
into  new  plants. 


392 


NATURE-STUDY 


Another  interesting  flowerless  plant,  of  which  there  are 
many  forms,  is  the  Lichen.  These  are  usually  flattened 
plants  growing  upon  trees,  rocks,  earth,  and  cliffs.  Gener- 
ally they  are  of  a  bluish-green  color,  but  often  they  are  yel- 
low, red,  and  black.  Many  form  an  irregular  crust;  others 
are  much  branched  and  dissected.  Some  forms  present  a 

tufted  or  thread- 
like structure. 
Visit  a  pile  of 
cordwood  and 
note  how  many 
kinds  of  lichens 
may  be  found 
on  the  bark. 
Note  that  cer- 
tain species  are 
found  only  on 
certain  kinds  of 
trees.  A  visit  to 
a  forest  or  to  a  boulder  field  will  show  many  other  kinds 
of  lichens.  The  faces  of  old  weathered  cliffs  are  often  cov- 
ered with  them. 

There  is  a  great  class  of  flowerless  plants  called  Fungi.  A 
fungus  has  no  chlorophyll,  and  therefore  cannot  make  its  own 
food  (starch),  and  derives  it  from  the  living  or  dead  tissues  of 
other  plants,  or  from  animals. 

The  most  conspicuous  fungi  are  mushrooms,  or  toad- 
stools, and  puff-balls.  It  is  well  that  pupils  should  learn 
a  little  of  the  general  structure  and  habits  of  these  peculiar 
plants.  We  speak  of  mushrooms  growing  in  a  single  night, 
but  in  reality  where  mushrooms  appear  thus  suddenly  there 


FIG.  168.     Agaricus  Campestris. 
(Common  mushroom — edible.) 


FLOWERLESS   PLANTS  393 

has  been  a  long  period  of  growth  and  preparation  under- 
ground, or  below  the  surface.  The  body  of  a  fungus  gen- 
erally consists  of  a  collection  of  fibrous  threads  or  filaments 
growing  in  the  decaying  bark  or  wood  of  trees  or  in  the  soil. 
These  are  the  vegetative  part  of  the  plant.  They  may  often 
be  seen  by  stripping  the  bark  from  rotten  logs,  or  by  care- 
fully removing  the  soil  around  a  growing  toadstool.  Then 
masses  of  white  threads  ramifying  in  all  directions  are  seen. 
These  are  the  vegetative  or  nourishing  part  of  the  plant, 
feeding  on  the  decaying  organic  matter  in  which  they  grow. 


FIG.  169.    Development  of  Mushroom.    Fungus  Filaments,  Buttons  and  Caps. 
Edible  Agaric. 

At  maturity  or  under  proper  conditions  there  arise  peculiar 
fruiting  structures,  the  parts  which  we  generally  see  exposed 
and  call  the  fungus. 

Collect  some  of  the  common  field  mushroom  (Agaricus 
campestris)  found  in  fields  and  pastures  and  along  road- 
sides. This  is  umbrella-shaped.  Under  the  conical  cap 
are  many  radiating  plates  called  gills.  On  these  gills  the 
spores  develop  in  great  numbers.  Lay  a  ripe  fungus  (one 
whose  gills  are  brown)  gills  downward  on  a  piece  of 
white  paper,  and  protect  with  a  bowl  or  bell  glass  from  the 
air  currents.  Leave  several  hours.  A  beautiful  "  spore-print " 
will  be  formed.  Note  in  the  field  mushroom  that  there  is  a 
ring  of  membranous  appearance  around  the  upper  part  of 


394 


NATURE-STUDY 


the  stem.  Compare  with  younger  plants.  In  these  there 
is  a  membrane  stretched  across  the  gills  from  the  cap  to  the 
stem  which  later  tears  away  from  the  cap,  and  adheres  as  a 
ring  to  the  stem.  The  spores  and  gills  are  at  first  white, 

then,  as  the  mushroom  becomes 
older,  turn  pink,  then  brown.     In 
the  field  agaric  there  is  no  mem- 
branous cup  at  the  base  of  the 
stalk.     Note  this  by  carefully  digging  up  a 
plant  so  as  to  get  all  of  the  stem.     This 
species  and  hundreds  of  other  fungi  are  edi- 
ble.    Their  nutritive  value,  however,  is  not 
very  great. 

Technically  there  is  no  distinction  between 
"mushroom"  and  "toadstool."  The  unsci- 
entific, however,  generally  limit    the   term 
mushroom  to  the  edible  forms,  and  the  lat- 
ter term  to  the  non-edible  and  poisonous. 
A  number  of  fungi  are  very  poisonous,  and 
many  people  are  killed  by  carelessly  gather- 
ing and  eating  them.     One  should  not  at- 
tempt to  gather  mushrooms  for  eating,  un- 
less thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  common 
FIG.  170.  Amanita.  edible   and    dangerous    kinds.     There  are 
only  a  few  poisonous  mushrooms.     A  com- 
mon very  poisonous  form,  the  deadly  amanita  (Amanita  phal- 
loides)  usually  grows  in  the  woods,  though  it  may  occur  in  pas- 
tures and  fields  with  edible  mushrooms.     This  fungus  looks 
much  like  the  edible  field  agaric,  but  may  be  distinguished 
from  it  by  the  fact  that  its  spores  are  white,  not  brown,  in  ma- 
turity.    Moreover,  it  has  a  cup-like  envelope  around  the  stem 


FLOWERLESS   PLANTS 


395 


at  the  base.  Though  there  are  exceptions  to  these  rules,  the 
beginner  at  collecting  fungi  for  the  table  should  not  take 
immature  fungi  whose  true  character  cannot  be  told. 

Reject  fungi  with  enveloping  cups  at  the  base  of  the  stem. 
Reject  brightly  colored  fungi.  Do  not  take  fungi  with  gills 
white  at  maturity.  Do 
not  take  toadstools  that 
have  tubes  or  pores  on 
the  under  side.  Do  not 
take  fungi  with  a  milky 
juice.  Before  eating  the 
fungi  the  novice  should 
show  them  to  an  expert 
collector. 

Puff-balls  are  globu- 
lar fungi  whose  spores 
develop  inside  the  mass 
and  escape  when  the  FlG' 171'  Wood^roying  Toadstool. 

ball  ruptures.  Some  attain  a  large  size,  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter.  One  form  has  a  thin  rind  which  bursts  at  the 
top  and,  when  pressed,  emits  a  cloud  of  fine  spores.  Puff- 
balls  are  found  in  fields  and  pastures  and  are  edible  in  the 
white  stage. 

Some  fungi  form  shelf -like  projections  on  trees  and  fallen 
logs,  and  on  stumps.  Some  of  these  have  gills  (shelf  agarics) ; 
others  have  myriads  of  small  pores  or  tubes  in  which  the 
spores  form  (Poly pores').  Others  again  have  numerous 
fine  teeth  on  the  under  side  on  which  the  spores  form  (as  in 
Hydnum  of  the  hedgehog  fungi) ;  in  others  the  spores  are  borne 
upon  branching  surfaces,  as  in  the  coral-like  Clavaria.  Some 
fungi  spread  out  on  stumps  and  logs  in  gelatinous  masses. 


396  NATURE-STUDY 

Fungi  play  an  important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
Many  species  grow  in  the  wood  of  trees.  They  generally 
enter  the  tree  as  a  spore  by  some  wound,  as  a  scar,  or  broken 
branch.  From  this  point  the  vegetative  fibres  of  the  fungus 
ramify  through  the  wood,  killing  the  living  tissues,  weaken- 
ing and  rotting  the  wood,  so  that  it  is  often  ruined  for  tim- 
ber. Such  fungous  decay  generally  results  in  the  death  of 
the  tree.  The  fungus  continues  its  work,  until  finally  the 
tree  is  so  much  weakened  that  it  is  blown  down  in  some 
storm.  Still  the  work  of  the  fungus  goes  on.  The  fallen 
tree  decays,  crumbles,  and  is  added  to  the  mould  on  the 
forest  floor.  In  time  the  substance  of  the  tree  is  practically 
entirely  decomposed  and  returned  to  the  air  and  the  soil 
from  which  it  originally  was  derived.  In  this  work  of  decay 
fungi  are  really  beneficent  agents.  Though  it  is  pathetic  to 
see  a  fine  tree  decay,  yet  every  tree  reaches  a  period  of  ma- 
turity and  then  declines,  and  should  finally  make  room  for 
new  growth.  If  it  were  not  for  the  work  of  the  fungi  and 
bacteria  of  decay,  the  dead  trees  would  so  choke  the  forest 
that  no  new  growth  could  develop. 


PART  III 
A    COURSE    OF    NATURE-STUDY 


CHAPTER  XX 
A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY 

IT  requires  some  temerity  to  select  and  arrange  the  material 
for  a  graded  course  in  nature-study.  The  author  recognizes 
his  inability  to  plan  a  course  that  will  meet  the  wishes  of 
every  teacher,  and  the  impossibility  of  making  any  plan  that 
will  stand  for  all  time,  even  if  that  were  desirable.  Any 
plan,  however  perfect  to-day,  might  not  fit  to-morrow  under 
a  changed  curriculum  or  under  the  new  conditions  imposed 
by  the  demands  of  a  society  having  different  views  of  educa- 
tion from  those  held  to-day. 

And  yet  the  greatest  evil  in  our  present-day  teaching  of 
nature-study  is  that  it  is  unrelated  and  unorganized.  It  is 
too  scattering.  A  teacher  in  a  certain  grade  will  teach  her 
nature-study  without  reference  to  what  has  been  taught  in 
previous  grades  or  what  is  to  come.  As  a  result  there  is 
much  repetition,  and  there  can  be  no  proper  development 
of  the  study.  There  should  be  a  continuity  and  a  unity  in 
the  different  branches  of  nature-study,  not  only  for  a  partic- 
ular grade  but  for  the  whole  course.  For  example,  in  botany 
the  work  in  the  lower  grades  should  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  that  in  higher  grades.  The  subject  should  be  naturally 
and  logically  developed  throughout  the  course.  A  certain 
number  of  common  flowers  or  trees  should  be  learned  the 


400  NATURE-STUDY 

first  year,  the  next  year  a  few  new  ones,  and  so  on.  In 
this  way  the  child  will  have  a  knowledge  of  quite  a  list  of 
trees  or  flowers  when  he  is  through  with  the  eighth  grade. 
But  this  can  only  be  done  by  the  different  teachers  agreeing 
among  themselves  what  to  teach — generally  entirely  out  of 
the  question — or  else  by  adhering  more  or  less  closely  to  a 
well-arranged  outline,  planned  by  some  one  who  had  in  mind 
the  requirements  of  the  whole  course.  Where  there  is  a 
supervisor  of  the  nature-study,  or  where  the  superintendent 
makes  such  a  course,  nature-study  is  generally  efficiently 
taught.  Unfortunately,  there  is  not  enough  such  super- 
vision. We  would  not  think  of  teaching  our  arithmetic 
without  organizing  it  into  a  graded  course.  Tradition  and 
long  experience  with  this  subject  have  evolved  some  kind  of 
system  in  it,  and  it  has  been  formulated  into  text-books. 
Nature-study  is  still  in  the  transitional  stage,  largely  unor- 
ganized and  not  taught  with  a  book.  Of  course,  this  is  in 
a  measure  an  advantage,  but  it  makes  it  difficult  to  get  defi- 
nite results.  The  course  presented  here  is  a  contribution 
toward  the  organizing  of  this  great  mass  of  nature  material. 
It  is  a  suggestion  rather  than  a  solution. 

We  have  an  embarrassment  of  riches  in  nature-study,  and 
the  problem  in  making  out  a  course  is  as  much  one  of  elimi- 
nation as  one  of  selection  of  material.  The  guiding  prin- 
ciples in  the  selection  of  this  course  have  been  the  natural 
interests  of  the  child  in  his  home  and  neighborhood  envi- 
ronment, the  social  motive, 'and  the  principle  of  correlation. 
The  nature-work  is  closely  correlated  with  geography.  In 
fact  in  the  primary  grades  no  attempt  is  made  to  distinguish 
between  the  two  subjects.  Likewise,  much  of  the  nature 
material  suggested  is  also  historical,  for  example,  the  life 


A  GRADED  COURSE  OF  MATURE-STUDY         401 

of  primitive  man.  The  relation  of  nature-study  to  manual 
training  and  domestic  economy  is  also  kept  in  view.  Fur- 
thermore, one  science  is  correlated  with  another,  physiology 
with  chemistry  and  physics.  In  the  primary  grades,  espe- 
cially, the  nature  material  should  be  used  chiefly  for  devel- 
oping the  child's  expression.  Hence  the  nature-study  in 
these  grades  is  selected  largely  for  its  suitability  as  material 
also  in  reading,  construction,  and  art. 

It  is  not  expected  or  intended  that  all  of  the  topics  indi- 
cated in  the  following  course  shall  be  studied  in  any  one 
school.  It  has  been  made  extensive  with  the  idea  of  allow- 
ing teachers  a  greater  freedom  of  choice  according  to  local 
conditions,  and  also  to  provide  for  variety  from  year  to  year. 
The  educational  motive  and  the  educational  material  in  a 
commercial  metropolis  must  necessarily  differ  considerably 
from  those  of  a  rural,  agricultural  community.  In  one  the 
commerical  industries  and  civic  problems  are  the  chief  inter- 
est. In  the  other  the  chief  interest  is  how  to  grow  plants, 
and  how  to  raise  animals.  The  course  below  contains  enough 
suitable  material  for  schools  of  both  communities.  Each 
should  select  from  the  course  according  to  local  requirements. 

The  departmental  plan  of  teaching  is  practised  in  many 
of  our  schools.  It  might  be  very  desirable  in  some  schools 
to  let  the  nature-study  be  taught  by  certain  teachers  espe- 
cially enthusiastic  in  that  work,  and  especially  well  equipped 
for  it. 

Field  lessons  and  visits  to  industrial  establishments  should 
accompany  the  nature-work  whenever  possible.  They  are 
not  always  indicated  in  the  course,  but  are  to  be  taken  for 
granted.  Suggestions  for  art  treatment  are  indicated  by 
asterisks. 


402  NATURE-STUDY 

A  carefully  selected  list  of  books  especially  adapted  for 
primary  reference  will  be  found  in  the  appendix.  They  are 
arranged  by  topics,  and  the  whole  group  is  referred  to  by 
letter  in  the  outline  of  the  grades. 

Following  this  in  the  appendix  is  a  general  reference  list 
arranged  by  subjects.  The  books  are  all  numbered  and  are 
referred  to  in  the  outline  of  the  course  by  number.  The 
teacher  should  also  refer  to  other  volumes  of  the  same  class 
beside  those  especially  mentioned.  Often  books  just  as  good 
as  those  specified  will  be  found  in  the  same  list. 

Outline  of  Course  of  Study 

FIRST  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  In  this  grade  the  nature-work  is  not 
so  much  for  the  sake  of  imparting  information  as  for  training 
the  senses,  a  basis  for  the  work  in  language,  reading,  art,  and 
hand-work.  The  study  of  the  occupations  and  primitive  life 
is  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  future  work  in  geography,  history, 
and  literature.  A  very  important  thing  in  this  grade  is  to 
develop  an  attitude  of  interest  in  nature  and  a  sympathy  for 
animals,  flowers,  etc.  The  beauty  element  in  nature-study 
should  here  receive  much  consideration.  The  course  begins 
with  the  common  things  in  the  home,  garden,  fields,  and 
streets  of  the  child's  neighborhood. 

The  subject  should  be  presented  here  with  much  more 
informality  than  in  upper  grades.  Informal  talks  by  the 
teacher,  simple  observations  by  the  children,  with  some  direc- 
tion of  their  observation  by  the  teacher,  telling  by  the  chil- 
dren the  things  that  they  notice,  and  the  free  conversational 
method  should  be  the  character  of  the  presentation.  Field 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY          403 

lessons  should  be  frequent.  The  garden,  fields,  shops,  and 
tradesmen  should  be  visited.  The  topics  should  be  selected 
for  their  timeliness  and  for  correlation  with  other  subjects. 
The  work  will  naturally  follow  closely  the  changing  seasons, 
and  should  be  extensive  rather  than  intensive.  Hence  the 
variety  of  topics  suggested. 

Do  not  expect  too  minute  description  of  details  of  struct- 
ure. This  should  not  be  very  prominent  in  the  lower  grades. 
Do  more  with  habits,  beauty,  and  uses.  Do  not  expect 
much  reasoning  out  of  adaptations,  classifications,  etc.  Do 
not  go  much  into  the  reasons  for  things.  The  personifica- 
tion of  animals,  plants,  and  even  inanimate  things  is  here 
permissible  in  moderation.  Anecdotes  are  very  useful.  In 
the  correlated  reading,  nature  myths  and  fairy  tales  may  be 
used,  but  not  to  excess. 

For  suggestions  as  to  art  application  of  the  topics  see  p.  57.  The  as- 
terisk indicates  subjects  suitable  for  art  treatment.  Letters  refer  to  lists 
in  Primary  Reference,  p.  511.  Numbers  refer  to  General  Reference  List, 
p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

INDUSTRIAL:  Home  occupations.*  Food  Supply  (Pri- 
mary References  P,  N,  S,  U).  Clothing  (S,  U).  Shelter 
(S,  U).  Develop  the  need  for  these  things,  how  and  where 
we  get  them.  Who  makes  them  for  us.  Visit  sources. 
Primitive  life  (U).  Picture  child's  condition  if  left  to  pro- 
vide his  own  needs;  what  he  would  use  in  primitive  con- 
ditions and  how  he  would  get  them.  Describe  life  of  prim- 
itive man.*  Fire  (S,  U).  Visit  garden  (Q),  farm  *,  (R, 
P)  and  stores*  (S)  and  note  articles  of  food  and  clothing. 
Make  models  of  these  places. 


4o4  NATURE-STUDY 

WEATHER  STUDY:  Have  the  children  note  the  seasonal 
changes  (X,  V),  and  the  effects  upon  the  landscape*  (X,  L, 
poems).  Note  the  effect  of  frost  and  of  warm  weather  on 
the  garden  vegetation,  trees,  etc.  and  upon  animals.  Note 
migrations  and  hibernation  (X3,  E,  L,  I,  P).  Observe  the 
preparation  of  the  farmer  for  winter,  his  winter  and  his 
spring  work  (R,  P,  X);  his  benefits  from  the  rain,  sunshine, 
warmth,  etc. 

Effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  water  (V,  X),  experiments. 
Observe  and  talk  about  clouds,*  rain,*  snow,*  sunshine 
(V,  X).  Make  a  sunshine  and  cloud  chart  in  colors,  but  do 
not  keep  up  too  long.  Talks  about  the  wind*  and  what  it 
does  (V,X).  Learn  directions  (V,  X).  Make  windmills, 
vanes,  and  kites. 

Talks  about  what  the  sun  gives  us  —  heat  and  light 
(V,  X,  Y). 

HYGIENE:  Simple  talks  on  cleanliness  of  hands  and  face, 
hair,  teeth,  nails.  Clothing  materials.  (Z,  S.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Keep  children's  pets,  such  as  dog,  cat,* 
squirrel,*  in  the  school-room.  Let  children  watch  them 
and  take  care  of  them.  Tell  anecdotes.  Study  habits  and 
simpler  points  of  structure.  Develop  the  kindly  feeling  of 
the  children  toward  pets  and  wild  creatures.  (C). 

Wild  squirrel,  in  connection  with  nuts.*  Observe  out- 
doors. Feed.  Study  habits.  (B,  E). 

BIRDS  :  Observe  and  study  habits  of  canary,*  robin,*  and 
blackbird  (H).  Migration  (Gen.  Ref.  108,  H.)  Food  (H, 
120).  Habits,  (H). 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         405 

Chicken*  and  turkey*  (G).  Observe,  feed,  talk  about 
uses,  especially  about  Thanksgiving  Day. 

INSECTS:  In  the  garden  and  fields  observe  butterflies 
and  moths.  Find  cocoons  in  sheltered  nooks,  on  fences, 
houses,  and  bark  of  trees.  Observe  caterpillars  on  milk- 
weed, cabbage,  and  trees.  Collect  some  of  these  and  keep 
in  cage.  Feed  proper  food.  Observe  spinning  of  cocoon. 
Keep  cocoons  till  the  moth  emerges.  The  milkweed  *  and 
cabbage  *  butterflies,  if  taken  early  at  the  beginning  of  the 
school  year,  will  perhaps  emerge  in  a  week  or  so.  But  later 
they  will  not  come  out  till  the  next  spring.  Gather  cocoons  * 
of  cecropia  moth,  etc.  and  pin  up  in  th  e  school-room.  They 
may  open  in  early  spring.  (J.  Ky;  See  Gen.  Ref.  127,  128, 
134,  47  143.) 

Observe  outdoor  habits  of  cricket,  grasshopper,  fly,  and 
spider.  Cage  the  insects,  feed,  and  observe.  Note  general 
appearance  and  peculiarities.  Spiders  make  interesting 
school-room  pets.  Teach  children  not  to  be  afraid  of  insects 
and  spiders.  (J.  also  143,  132;  129;  for  spider,  i3oa,  131.) 

PLANTS. 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  :  Make  a  study  of  fruits,*  nuts,* 
and  vegetables,*  more  from  the  human  point  of  view  as  to 
edibility,  than  from  the  botanical.  Observe  them  growing, 
gather  some.  How  do  we  keep  them  ?  Where  do  we  buy 
them  ?  Where  do  the  storekeepers  get  them  ?  What  use  do 
we  make  of  them  in  the  home,  and  how  do  we  prepare 
them?  Learn  the  names  of  the  common  kinds.  Visit  the 
school-garden,  a  truck-garden,  stores,*  the  market,  the  or- 
chard,* and  vineyard.  Go  on  a  nutting  picnic.*  Observe 
at  same  time  the  orchard  insects  and  birds,  and  the  animals 


406  NATURE-STUDY 

of  the  nut  grove.  The  work  should  be  a  preparation  for  the 
observance  of  Thanksgiving  Day.  (Fruit:  N,  S,  238,  cata- 
logues of  nurseries.  Nuts:  N,  S,  220.  Vegetables:  P,  S,  R, 
garden  catalogues.) 

TREES:  Studied  for  identification,  for  their  beauty, 
changes  with  the  season,*  fruit,  benefits.  (L.  N,  173,  etc.) 
Hard  maple,*  oak,*  elm,  chestnut.*  Observe  the  leaf  colors,* 
the  beauty  of  masses  of  foliage.  Pick  out  the  various  colors. 
Try  to  associate  them  with  particular  trees — especially  the 
maple  and  elm.  Collect  leaves  to  use  in  art  work.  Observe 
the  landscape  during  the  waning  season,  and  note  the 
changes,  the  beauty  in  each  aspect.  (L,  XQ,  216.) 

FLOWERS:  Visit  the  school  garden  and  note  the  kinds 
still  in  blossom,  learning  the  names  of  the  commoner  kinds. 
Note  fragrance  and  beauty.  Collect,  and  arrange  bouquets. 
Gather  the  autumn  sunflowers,*  asters,*  daisies,*  golden- 
rod,*  and  dandelion.*  Learn  their  common  names.  Note 
the  abundance  of  these  wild  flowers,  and  the  masses  of 
color  they  produce,  their  beauty  in  their  natural  situations. 
Gather  bouquets  for  school.  Observe  them  going  to  seed- 
dandelion.  Blow  off  the  fruits,  see  them  sail.*  Collect  other 
seeds  that  sail— milkweed,*  thistle.*  (M,  N.) 

WINTER 

ANIMALS.   • 

MAMMALS:  Milk  and  meat  (S,  T),  the  dairy  (R,  T). 
Visit  a  barnyard,  observe  the  feeding,  etc.  of  the  cows  *  and 
calves.  Go  into  the  barn  and  note  arrangement  for  the  care 
of  the  cattle.  Visit  dairy,  note  milking,  cans,  etc.  Study 
the  benefits  we  derive  from  the  cow — milk,  meat,  leather, 
butter,  cheese.  Simple  study  of  how  these  things  are 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY          407 

prepared  and  brought  to  us.  Visit  meat  market.  (D,  R, 
S,  T,  U). 

About  Christmas  consider  the  deer.*  (F,  U.)  Where 
found,  food,  fleetness,  enemies,  hunting  (U).  Visit  zoo- 
logical garden  or  park  where  deer  are  kept.  Rabbit.*  Have 
a  tame  rabbit  in  school,  feed  it  and  care  for  it.  Make  a  hutch 
for  it.  Observe  its  general  appearance,  color,  hopping,  feed- 
ing. Let  children  be  on  the  lookout  for  wild  rabbits,  and 
tell  their  observations.  (E,  C.)  Note  the  fur. 

Examine  the  fur  garments  of  the  children.  What  kinds 
of  furs  are  represented?  Tell  about  trapping  and  hunting, 
(S,  U)  fur  animals.  (E,  F.)  Sheep,*  chiefly  in  its  relation 
to  clothing.  Observe  sheep  if  possible.  Show  wool  on  the 
hide,  shorn  wool,  spun  and  woven,  and  dyed.  Refer  to 
the  warmth  of  furs  and  woolen  clothing,  (D,  S,  T,  R,  U.) 
Refer  to  primitive  man,*  and  discuss  his  food  and  clothing. 
Refer  to  the  Indian.  (U,  W.) 

BIRDS  :  Note  that  all  the  birds  have  not  flown  away.  On 
field  trips,  and  incidentally,  let  the  children  observe  the 
birds.  By  color  charts  teach  them  to  recognize  the  blue  jay,* 
nut  hatch,  chicadee,*  and  the  English  sparrow.  Note  their 
beauty,  cheerfulness,  the  sounds  they  make,  their  food,  where 
they  stay  at  night.  (H.)  The  sparrow  is  especially  easily 
observed  about  the  school  and  homes,  and  everywhere  on 
the  streets  (120).  The  scarcity  of  food  in  the  snow-covered 
fields  brings  many  of  the  wild  birds  into  the  towns,  where 
they  may  be  fed  and  made  less  wild.  Let  the  children  show 
their  sympathy  for  the  birds  by  feeding  them  crumbs,  etc. 
(See  chapter  X.)  (113,  478.) 

FISH  :  Have  goldfish  *  in  an  aquarium.  Let  the  children 
help  take  care  of  the  fish.  Observe  the  beauty  and  grace  of 


4o8  NATURE-STUDY 

the  fish  in  swimming.  Note  feeding.  Note  general  shape, 
etc.  (I.)  Fish  as  food.  Brief  talks  on  fishing.  Primitive 
man's  methods  of  fishing.  (I,  U,  T,  also  46,  49,  42.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING:  Planting  bulbs  of  tulip*  and  hyacinth.* 
Care  of  potted  plants  and  window-boxes.  (235,  224,  229, 

221.) 

TREES:  Note  the  winter  landscape,*  the  bare  trees.* 
Observe  the  oak  and  elm,  and  try  to  see  general  typical  form 
of  each,  and  identify.  (L.)  Observe  the  contrast  of  pines  * 
and  balsams*  (L,  173,  etc.)  with  the  other  trees.  Note 
characteristic  shape,  mode  of  branching,  needles*  and  cones,* 
and  resinous  nature.  Note  their  beauty,  frosted  and  laden 
with  snow.  Collect  cones  and  twigs.  Especially  appropri- 
ate near  Christmas. 

SPRING 
INANIMATE. 

SPRING  WEATHER:  Greater  warmth,  melting  of  snow  and 
ice,  awakening  of  vegetation  and  animals,  the  March  wind,* 
clouds,*  rain,*  running-water,  the  brook* — field  lessons. 
(X.  V.)  (See  Weather  above.)  What  the  wind  does  for  us. 
Make  windmills,  kites,  vanes.  What  the  rain  is  good  for. 

THE  BROOK:  Where  does  the  water  in  the  brook  come 
from?  Note  its  swiftness,  how  it  carries  things  along. 
Make  toy  boats  to  float  upon  it.  Note  the  quiet  pools,  the 
little  falls,  the  round  pebbles — gather  some.  The  beauty  of 
the  brook. 

ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:  Identify  the  returning  birds,  (H,  95,  etc.)  Let 
the  children  vie  with  one  another  in  reporting  new  arrivals. 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  'NATURE-STUDY         409 

In  field  lessons  observe  and  identify.  Note  habits,  song, 
food,  nest  building,*  eggs,*  care  of  young.  Emphasize  the 
beauty  and  song  of  birds.  Try  to  have  children  associate 
songs  and  calls  with  particular  birds.  (io8>  in,  112,  120, 
478,  113,  109.)  List:  Crow,*  robin,*  blue-bird,*  blackbird, 
redheaded  woodpecker.*  (no.)  Let  the  children  put  out 
bits  of  string,  hair,  feathers,  etc.  for  the  robins,  sparrows, 
bluebirds,  and  wrens.  Teach  boys  the  wrong  of  robbing 
nests,  stoning  birds,  etc. 

Have  hen  and  chickens  *  at  the  school.  Let  children  care 
for  them.  Observe  parental  care  of  the  old  hen.  Food. 
Visit  a  poultry  yard,  and  note  different  kinds  of  chickens, 
etc.  Note  the  beauty  and  the  crowing  of  the  cock.  What 
the  hen  gives  us :  Eggs,  meat,  feathers.  Why  does  the  hen 
scratch?  How  should  we  care  for  chickens?  (G,  S,  R.) 

FROGS  :  Take  the  class  to  a  ditch  or  pool  where  there  are 
frogs'  eggs.  Observe  where  they  are  placed.  Collect  some 
and  place  in  jars  or  aquaria — only  a  few  in  a  jar — and  let 
them  hatch  and  develop.  The  children  should  make  in- 
formal observations  of  the  changes.*  Have  a  frog  in  a  vi- 
varium, (24).  Feed  it  worms  and  insects.  Observe  how  it 
eats.  Care  for  it.  (I.) 

EARTHWORMS:  When  the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground 
observe  the  return  of  earthworms.  Collect  some,  and  put 
in  a  worm  cage  and  feed.  Observe.  (B.) 

INSECTS:  Visit  a  hive,  and  observe  the  bees  at  work. 
Better  still  if  an  observation  hive  is  accessible.  Observe 
bees  in  the  flowers,  laden  with  pollen.  Simple  study  of  the 
form  of  the  bee,  its  social  life,  and  honey  gathering.  (J, 

144,  I33-) 
Observe   an   ant-hill,  noting  numbers,  cocoons,  feeding, 


410  NATURE-STUDY 

working,      Prepare  an  ant  cage  (Chapter  XIV,  47, 126, 481) 
and  feed,  and  observe  in  the  school-room.     (J,  136,  132.) 

PLANTS. 

TREES:  (L,  173,  etc.)  With  the  children  gather  pussy- 
willows,* and  place  them  in  water  in  the  school-room. 
Force  buds  of  horse-chestnut,*  lilac,  maple.  Observe  the 
unopened  buds  and  follow  the  changes.  Note  the  changes 
in  the  landscape  owing  to  the  growth  of  grass  and  tree  buds. 
Trees  have  flowers:  Apple,*  plum,*  willow,  oak,  maple, 
lilac.*  (L,  175,  etc.)  Identify  the  trees  studied  in  the  fall 
and  the  new  trees  mentioned.  Teach  that  fruit  and  seed 
come  from  the  flower.  Observe  this  in  the  plum,  apple, 
etc.  Thus  there  is  use  as  well  as  beauty  in  a  flower.  (K,  L.) 
Plant  apple  seed,  acorn,  maple  fruit,  etc. 

GARDENING  :  Make  window-boxes,  prepare  soil,  and  plant 
Lima  beans,  peas,  corn,  grain,  flower  seeds.  Teach  proper 
way  of  sowing,  or  planting,  watering,  etc.  Try  to  note  con- 
ditions necessary  by  withholding  water  and  heat  from  some 
of  the  seeds,  and  note  that  seeds  fail  to  grow.  Observe 
the  growth  of  the  seedlings,*  how  they  cast  their  skins,  etc. 
Make  a  simple  glass  germinator  (chapter  XVII)  and  show 
how  the  seed  swells,  bursts,  and  how  the  little  plant  emerges. 
Make  study  simple  and  observational.  Plant  acorns,  plum 
pits,  apple  seeds,  maple  fruits,  and  try  to  cultivate  them  to 
set  out  later.  The  flower  seeds  also  may  be  started  for  later 
transplanting  out  in  the  school-garden.  (K,  Q,  221,  222,  229, 
234,  235,  237,  etc.) 

The  School- Garden :  This  grade  should  have  a  plot  of 
its  own  for  a  class,  or  group  beds.  The  heavier  work  of 
spading,  fertilizing,  and  raking  should  be  done  by  the 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         411 

upper  grades  or  some  one  else.  Let  the  children  take  an 
active  part  in  the  selection  of  seeds  and  the  planning  of  the 
beds.  Let  them  mark  off  the  beds  for  different  crops,  and 
do  the  sowing  or  planting  as  far  as  they  are  able.  Sow  early 
vegetables  such  as  lettuce  and  radish.  Later,  when  safe, 
transplant  the  nasturtium,  sweet  peas  etc.,  started  in  the 
window-boxes.  Plant  pumpkins  and  popcorn.  Perhaps 
lay  out  a  miniature  farm  with  different  grains.  (See  Chapter 
XVI.)  The  children  should  do  the  weeding,  watering,  train- 
ing, etc. 

SECOND  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  These  are  practically  the  same  for 
this  grade  as  for  the  first.  The  children  are  now  able  to 
express  themselves  better,  and  more  can  be  got  from  them 
in  descriptions,  oral  and  written.  Drawing  can  also  be 
used  more  in  this  grade.  More  may  be  done  with  the  rela- 
tions of  animals  and  plants  to  their  surroundings,  and  to 
each  other,  and  something  with  the  observation  of  the  opera- 
tion of  inanimate  forces.  The  plants  and  animals  identified 
last  year  should  be  reviewed  briefly,  and  new  lists  added. 

Suggestions  for  art-study  in  connection  with  nature-study — see  p.  57. 
The  asterisk  indicates  subjects  suitable  for  art  treatment.  The  letters  indi- 
cate primary  references,  p.  511;  the  numbers,  general  reference  list,  p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL:  Clothing,  materials 
used,  from  what  animals  or  plants  derived,  how  prepared. 
(S,  T,  U.)  Chiefly  in  connection  with  the  proper  topics 
below.  How  our  houses  are  built,  the  materials  used,  and 
the  trades  employed.  (S,  T,  U.)  Compare  with  primitive 


412  NATURE-STUDY 

man.  Picture  him  under  primitive  conditions  providing 
his  necessities.*  (U.)  Fire,  how  kindled,  uses,  primitive 
method  of  making.  (S.  U.)  Take  up  in  winter. 

Domestication  of  animals,  how  brought  about,  benefit  to 
the  race  from  this.  What  animals  were  tamed.  (U,  D,  60.) 
Uses:  Skins,  leather,  meat,  milk,  as  beasts  of  burden.  (S,T, 
U,  R.)  Nomadic  *  and  pastoral  life,*  illustrated  by  de- 
scription of  the  life  of  children  in  other  lands  and  times. 
(U,  W,  R,  V.) 

Modes  of  travel,  routes  determined  by  natural  features, 
idea  of  trade  and  transportation  of  commodities.  (U,  V,  W.) 
Rural  and  city  life,  illustrated  largely  from  childhood  life. 
Point  out  some  of  the  advantages  and  pleasures  of  each. 
(R,  V.)  Children  in  other  lands.  Idea  of  climate  and 
notions  of  geography.  (W.) 

WEATHER:  Seasonal  changes  in  temperature,  etc.  (X,  V.) 
Changes  produced  in  the  landscape,*  note  varying  beauty, 
colors.  (X,L.)  Effects  on  plant  and  animal  life  —  the 
preparation  for  winter,  ripening  of  fruits  and  seeds,  falling 
of  leaves,*  migration  of  birds,  hibernation  of  frogs  and  other 
animals,  the  winter  sleep  of  trees,  the  awakening,  flow  of 
sap,  bursting  buds,  return  of  the  birds,  and  awakening  of 
frogs,  etc.  Farmer's  work*  in  different  seasons.  Fuel  and 
clothing,  and  the  weather.  (X,  K,  I,  B  6,  R,  V.) 

Learning  to  read  the  thermometer,*  freezing  and  boiling 
points.  Experiments  to  show  evaporation,  condensation. 
(X,  V,  250,  etc.)  Observe  clouds,*  rain,*  snow,*  ice,  frost  * 
on  the  window,  wind,*  when  these  phenomena  occur.  Dis- 
cuss their  effects,  their  relation  to  child  sport,*  the  uses  of 
each  in  nature,  and  to  man.  Personify  them  to  bring  out 
their  active  character  as  natural  forces.  Apply  the  experi- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         413 

ments  in  physics  to  their  simple  explanation.  (X,  V,  327, 
328,  326.) 

Keep  weather  charts  for  short  intervals  at  different  sea- 
sons, recording  temperature,  wind  direction,  cloudiness, 
rain  or  snow,  sunshine,  the  children  making  the  observations, 
and  record.  Associate  certain  kinds  of  weather  with  certain 
directions  of  the  wind.  (X,  V,  10.)  In  connection  with 
weather  study  develop  the  idea  of  climate — cold,  hot,  dry, 
moist,  reading  stories  of  child  life  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
(V,  W.) 

EARTH-STUDY:  In  connection  with  house  construction 
study  building-stones,  the  kinds  used,  where  they  come  from. 
Observe  if  possible  boulders  in  the  fields,  ledges  of  rock, 
quarries,  and  visit  a  stone  cutter,  or  observe  the  work  on  a 
building  under  construction.  Not  much  can  be  expected 
in  this  grade  in  identification  of  the  stones.  (S,  T,  V,  316, 
339,  343.)  Note  other  uses  made  of  stones — fences,  monu- 
ments. Collect  specimens,  especially  polished  pieces. 

In  spring  observe  the  running  waters  from  the  melting 
snow.  Study  the  brook.*  Note  how  it  carries  along  float- 
ing sticks,  etc.,  and  mud  and  sand.  Observe  the  muddy 
rills  running  into  it  down  the  banks  and  sides  of  the  ravine. 
Note  the  channels  washed  out  by  the  rills.  Bring  out  the 
fact  that  the  valley  of  the  brook  was  also  formed  in  this  way 
by  the  brook.  Observe  falls,  rapids,  pools,  and  sand-bars, 
but  do  not  go  into  details  with  them.  Visit  a  hill.  Note 
difficulty  in  climbing.  Note  the  broadening  of  the  view. 
Note  how  streams  and  roads  go  around  rather  than  over. 
Show  how  the  hills  are  an  obstacle  in  travel;  the  ravines,  and 
valleys  easy  to  follow.  Visit  a  lake.*  Note  its  beauty  of 
waves  and  reflections.  Note  its  location  amid  hills.  Note 


414  NATURE-STUDY 

the  waves,  how  they  dash  and  chafe  on  the  shore,  seen  espe- 
cially well  at  a  bluff.  Refer  to  the  uses  made  of  the  lake, 
the  childhood  sports  *  connected  with  it.  Visit  a  river  if 
possible.  Compare  with  a  brook  previously  studied.  Ob- 
serve valley,  erosion,  sand-bars,  etc.  Climb  an  elevation 
and  observe  the  valley.  Note  the  river  winding  through  it. 
Discuss  the  uses  made  of  the  river  in  transportation,  water 
supply,  boating,*  bathing,*  fishing,*  harvesting  ice,  etc.  In 
a  similar  manner  observe  other  earth  features — mountain 
and  plain,  illustrated  if  possible  by  local  topography.  Ref- 
erences: V,  320,  328,  338,  343,  etc. 

ASTRONOMY:  Simple  talks  about  the  moon,*  stars,*  and 
sun,*  their  beauty  and  the  benefits  derived  from  them.  Note 
changing  length  of  day.  (Y,  388,  etc.) 

HYGIENE:  Clothing  in  different  seasons.  How  not  to 
catch  cold.  How  to  breathe  properly.  How  to  sit,  walk,  and 
stand  properly.  (368  etc.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  The  dog.*  A  sympathetic  study  of  dogs, 
their  friendship  and  faithfulness  to  man,  their  uses  as 
watch-dogs,  shepherds,  hunting-dogs,  and  as  pets.  How  we 
should  treat  them.  Some  different  kinds  of  dogs, — show 
pictures,  special  qualities.  Stories  about  dogs.  What  a 
dog  eats.  Observe  teeth  of  a  pet  dog  in  school.  Note  lap- 
ping of  milk  or  water,  gnawing  a  bone,  swallowing  a  piece  of 
meat.  Make  a  study  of  a  dog's  feet.  Compare  the  general 
appearance  of  different  dogs,  note  differences.  Stories  show- 
ing the  intelligence,  etc.  of  dogs.  How  does  a  dog  express 
different  moods?  (C,  60,  58,  413,  414.) 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         415 

Squirrel,*  chipmunk,*  gopher.*  Observe,  if  possible, 
outdoors.  Note  the  places  where  they  live.  If  possible  note 
the  food  they  eat,  their  manner  of  running,  sitting,  climb- 
ing, their  calls,  their  homes.  Storing  up  food.  Winter 
sleep.  Try  to  tame  the  squirrels  in  the  parks,  or  groves  near 
the  school,  feed  them  nuts,  corn,  etc.,  and  do  not  frighten 
or  injure  them.  (E,  74,  75,  78,  79.) 

Fox  *  (in  connection  with  poultry) :  Preying  upon  poultry, 
shyness  and  cunning.  Stories  about  the  fox,  where  he  lives, 
young  foxes.  What  dogs  look  somewhat  like  a  fox?  Make 
a  comparison  of  the  general  appearance  and  the  habits  of 
dogs  and  foxes.  They  are  "relatives."  (F,  61,  67,  37,  25.) 

BIRDS:  Ducks*  and  geese.*  Visit  a  duck-pond,*  or 
poultry  yard,  and  observe  the  swimming,  dipping,  feeding, 
waddling  of  these  birds.  Note  their  sounds.  Feed  them. 
Observe  their  bills,  feet,  wings,  feathers.  Do  they  get  wet 
in  the  water?  What  are  they  good  for?  Refer  to  wild 
ducks  and  geese,  and  their  domestication.  The  fox  enemy. 
(G,  R,  S.)  Care  of  poultry. 

The  "chicken"  hawk:  Observe  flight,  soaring.  Food 
of  hawks.  All  hawks  are  not  injurious,  most  of  them  do 
good.  How?  (H,  99,  120,  100.) 

Eagle:  Pictures  and  stories.  Home,  nest,  food,  prey- 
ing, soaring.  Compare  the  pictures  of  a  hawk  and  an  eagle. 
Note  the  curved  bills,  the  long  curved  claws.  Hawks  and 
owls  are  "birds  of  prey,"  or  "robbers."  (H,  120,  100,  68.) 
Associate  the  eagle  with  the  U.  S.  flag,  coins,*  etc. 

Migration  of  birds:  Observe  the  great  flocks  of  black- 
birds. The  gradual  disappearance  of  other  birds.  How 
long  do  the  swallows  stay?  The  robins?  Give  some  idea 
of  the  lands  to  which  the  birds  go  by  reading  stories  of  those 


416  NATURE-STUDY 

regions,  their  climate,  vegetation,  etc.  Show  pictures.  Why 
do  the  birds  not  stay?  Do  all  the  birds  fly  south?  (H,  108, 
100,  W.) 

INSECTS:  Life  history  of  butterfly  and  moth:  Observe 
caterpillars  of  milkweed,  and  cabbage  butterflies  in  field, 
also  find  caterpillars  *  of  cecropia  moth,  the  wooly  bear,  etc. 
Cage  and  feed  them.  Observe  spinning  of  cocoons,  and, 
perhaps,  if  not  too  late  in  the  season,  the  emergence  of  the 
milkweed  and  cabbage  butterflies.  Be  sure  the  children 
see  that  the  caterpillar  is  only  the  baby  moth  or  butterfly. 
Note  general  plan  of  a  butterfly.  Note  its  beauty,  grace- 
ful flight,  its  feeding  on  flowers.*  Collect  cocoons,*  note 
where  they  are  found,  bring  them  into  school,  and  keep 
them  till  spring  when  they  may  open.  (J,  129,  130,  136,  134, 
149,  150.)  Send  for  eggs  of  the  silkworm  (see  chapter  XIV) 
and  try  to  rear  them  through  the  life  cycle.*  (See  last  ref- 
erences, also  W,  T,  S.)  Brief  study  of  silk.  Try  to  unravel 
cocoon. 

Observe  grasshoppers  *  in  field  and  cage.  What  do  they 
eat?  How  do  they  use  their  jaws?  Note  head,  chest, 
abdomen  with  rings,  wings,  legs,  especially  the  last  pair. 
Observe  the  jumping  and  flying.  Catch  crickets  and  keep 
them  in  the  school-room.  Hear  them  chirp.  How  do  they 
do  it?  Compare  them  briefly  with  grasshoppers.  What 
are  their  habits?  Study  beetles  as  to  their  hard  shell,  the 
harm  they  do  (potato-beetle).  Find  ground  beetles.  Study 
flies  and  mosquitoes  briefly  as  troublesome  pests.  Dragon- 
fly * :  Beauty,  swiftness,  and  grace  in  flight.  Common 
names,  uses,  not  dangerous.  Observe  the  gauzy-veined 
wings,  iridescent  eyes.  Found  generally  near  the  water. 
Bees:  Observe  general  appearance,  note  buzzing  flight,  feed- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         417 

ing  among  the  flowers,  pollen  baskets  on  the  legs,  pollen 
dusted  on  their  hairy  bodies.  Compare  the  bumble-bees  * 
with  them.  Bumble-bees  may  be  kept  in  a  cage  and  fed 
with  honey  or  sweet  water.  Also  observe  the  wasps  *  on  the 
flowers  or  on  the  windows.  Do  they  resemble  the  bees? 
How  ?  How  different  ?  Collect  wasp  nests  *  and  open  one. 
Note  the  paper  walls,  cells,  larvae.  Compare  with  bee 
comb.  (J,  129,  130,  136,  132,  47,  137,  15,  33  34,  146.) 

SPIDERS:*  Observe  outdoors,  webs,  spinning,  catching 
insect,  beauty  and  symmetry  of  web.  Have  a  school-room 
spider.  Observe,  feed.  Teach  children  not  to  fear  spiders. 
(J,  i3oa,  131,  47.) 

FROGS  AND  TOADS:  Have  children  find  and  bring  them 
in.  Vivarium.  Care,  food,  water.  Habitat  of  frogs,  food, 
uses.  Enemies.  Feed  the  toad  *  worms  and  insects;  ob- 
serve how  it  licks  the  food  up.  Observe  burrowing.  Can 
you  easily  find  it  when  partly  buried  in  soil  ?  Why  ?  Toads 
do  not  [cause  warts  and  are  not  poisonous.  What  are  they 
good  for?  Do  not  kill  frogs  and  toads  for  the  "fun"  of  it 
or  because  you  think  them  harmful.  (I,  24,  33,  34,  47,  26.) 

Aquarium  stocking:  Collect  water  insects,  crayfish,  min- 
nows, clams,  snails,  and  keep  in  aquarium.  (See  page  165.) 
Use  for  informal  observation.  (47,  33,  34,  93,  i.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING  :  Visit  the  school  or  other  garden.  Observe 
the  effects  of  drought,  weeds,  and  insects.  Observe  the 
latter.  Collect  bouquets  *  and  arrange  artistically  for  the 
school-room.  Train  up  vines,  pull  or  cut  weeds,  and  get 
garden  in  as  good  condition  as  possible  after  the  summer's 
neglect.  Later,  gather  vegetables  and  seeds.  Put  seeds  into 


418  NATURE-STUDY 

labeled  packages  for  sowing  next  season.  Later,  observe  the 
effect  of  frost  on  flowers  and  vegetables,  protecting  some. 
Which  are  the  least  hardy  ?  Which  hardy  ?  Plant  fall  bulbs,* 
(tulips)  and  mulch  them  for  the  winter.  (229,  221,  seed 
catalogues.) 

HARVESTING:  Garden  vegetables,*  kinds,  uses, 'storage. 
Visit  school,  and  other  gardens.  (P,  R,  S.)  Grains:  Visit  a 
farm,  if  possible,  observe  harvesting,*  threshing.*  Learn 
to  recognize  different  kinds  of  grain.  Primitive  threshing.* 
Observe  where  the  kernels  grow.  Uses  of  different  kinds. 
Uses  of  straw.  The  story  of  a  loaf  of  bread — briefly. 
(P,  R,  S,  V.)  Collection  of  different  kinds  of  nuts.*  Nut- 
ting picnic.*  Observe  animals  there.*  (N.  S.) 

FRUITS:  Visit  a  fruit  store.*  Note  different  kinds.  Study 
some.*  Edible  portion  and  the  pits,  stones,  seeds.  Save 
these  for  planting.  Preserving  by  canning,  and  drying. 
Beauty,  fragrance,  flavor,  and  sweetness  of  fruit.  (N,  S, 
3OI>  3°4,  3TI>  368>  222.) 

TREES:  Review,  those  learned  last  year.  Add  horse- 
chestnut,  *apple,*  pear,*  cherry,  peach,*  walnut,*  but- 
ternut. Note  their  general  appearance,  leaf,*  fruit.* 
Autumn  colors,  changes,*  beauty.  Note  typical  color* 
of  maple,  elm,  sumach.  Observe  leaf  fall.*  Observe 
wind  playing  with  the  fallen  leaves.*  Note  the  buds  ready 
for  winter.*  (L,  216,  161.) 

FLOWERS  AND  WEEDS:  Review  the  flowers  learned  last 
fall.  Observe  the  different  kinds  of  wild  asters,*  sunflowers,* 
and  goldenrods.*  Collect  for  the  school-room.  Note  beauty 
of  roadside,  copse,*  and  pastures.  Thistle:*  Spines,  flowers, 
seeds.  Milkweed  :*  Pods  and  seeds,  collect  for  school.  (M, 
K,  N.)  Make  a  chart  of  seeds  that  fly.*  What  are  seeds  for  ? 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   MATURE-STUDY         419 

What  are  the  sails  or  wings  for  ?  Weeds :  Plantain,*  dande- 
lion,* daisy,*  purslane.  What  are  weeds?  Why  objection- 
able? How  do  these  weeds  injure?  Study  them  suffi- 
ciently to  be  able  to  recognize  them — root,  leaf,  flower,  seed. 
Why  do  the  dandelions  grow  so  abundantly  everywhere? 
Examine  the  lawn  for  weeds.  (222,  228,  231,  240,  256.) 

WINTER 

ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS  :  Sheep  *  in  its  relation  to  man.  Wool, 
shearing,  spinning,  weaving,  very  simply.  Clothing.  Stories 
about  these  processes.  Care  of  sheep.  The  shepherd 
and  his  dog.*  (D,  R,  S,  T,  V.)  Our  dependence  on  lower 
animals. 

The  Wolf:*  Enemy  of  sheep.  Stories.  Strength  and 
boldness.  Home.  Compare  with  dog  in  general  character 
and  appearance.  The  pelt  is  used  for  robes  and  coats. 
Hunting  stories.*  (U,  433,  444,  277.)  Bear:*  General 
form,  fur,  paws,  strength,  food,  den,  winter  sleep.  Taming 
cubs.  Stories.  (F,  25,  17,  St.  Nicholas,  435.) 

Deer:*  Visit  deer  park  or  zoological  garden.  Note  grace, 
fleetness,  and  beauty.  Food.  Males,  does,  and  fawns. 
Antlers,  shape,  growth,  uses.  Stories  of  primitive  man  and 
Indians  hunting  the  deer.*  Hiawatha.*  (F,  U,  69,  68.) 

BIRDS:  (H.  113,  109,  478.)  Those  that  stay.  (See 
Winter,  First  Grade,  same  birds,  and  same  treatment.)  Add 
hawks,  owls,*  doves,*  downy  woodpecker,*  and  snowbirds. 
Identification  study  of  these  both  in  school  and  out.  Feed 
the  birds  on  the  school  ground  or  at  home.  Learn  about 
the  habits  of  owls,  their  homes,  food,  beaks,  bills.  Owls 
belong  with  the  hawks  to  the  "robbers"  or  birds  of  prey. 


420  NATURE-STUDY 

FISH:  Keep  aquarium.  Goldfish,*  minnows,*  etc.  Feed. 
Observe  the  swimming,  feeding,  breathing.  Use  of  tail. 
Colors,  scales,  fins.  Fish  shape,  compare  different  kinds. 
Discuss  fishes  as  food,  fishing,*  primitive  man's  method. 
(I>  i5»  33>  34,  etc.,  U.) 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL:  Outdoors  observe  the  winter  aspect*  of  de- 
ciduous trees.  Try  to  identify  those  learned  in  the  fall  in 
foliage.  Note  the  characteristic  branching.*  (L,  173,  etc.) 
Compare  the  evergreens  *  with  the  last.  Note  their  beauty, 
shapes,  needles,*  cones,*  resin.  Study  the  cedar,  cedar-wood. 
(L,  173,  220,  etc.) 

Discuss  winter  condition  of  buds,  roots,  bulbs,*  seeds — 
"sleeping,"  protection  from  the  cold  by  the  snow,  leaves, 
etc.  Bring  in  some  lilac,  plum,  willow  twigs,  and  try  to  wake 
them  up,  placing  them  in  water.  (K,  L.) 

Flax  and  Cotton :  Show  in  natural  form,  discuss  in  simple 
way  the  general  process  of  getting  the  fibre,  spinning,  weav- 
ing, dyeing.  Examine  and  distinguish  cloth  made  from 
these  fibres.  Other  uses  of  cotton.  Stories  of  where  the 
cotton  grows.  Show  how  we  depend  upon  nature  for  our 
clothing.  (S.  T,  V,  W.) 

GARDENING  :  Window-boxes  and  potted  plants.  Prepara- 
tion of  soil.  (229,  221,  235.)  Wandering  Jew,  geranium,  prim- 
rose are  good  for  indoor  culture,  also  hyacinths  *  and  tulips,* 
and  daffodils.*  Plant  seeds  of  fruits,  nuts,  pits,  and  try  to 
raise  for  later  transplanting.  Butternut  or  walnut  are  good. 
Early  in  spring  or  in  late  winter  start  seeds  of  flowers  for 
planting  in  the  garden,  also  vegetables.  Lettuce,  nasturtium, 
pansy,  zinnia,  verbena  are  good  for  this  grade.  The  children 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF1  NATURE-STUDY         421 

are  to  do  practically  all  this  work,  and  to  have  the  care  of 
the  plants. 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Sympathetic  study  of  the  horse,*  show- 
ing what  it  does  for  us,*  and  how  we  ought  to  care  for 
and  treat  it.  Various  uses  in  the  city  and  on  the  farm. 
Observe  horses  Note  different  kinds — draught,  carriage, 
race  horses,  ponies.  Visit  a  farm  yard  or  stable.  Observe 
how  the  horses  are  cared  for  and  fed.  Their  food.  Call  atten- 
tion to  abuses  of  horses  by  drivers  overloading,  too  fast  driv- 
ing, too  tight  a  check,  not  enough  food,  etc.  Read  parts  of 
"  Black  Beauty."  Talks  and  stories  about  the  intelligence 
of  the  horse.  Observe  how  a  horse  uses  his  ears.  What 
is  the  tail  good  for?  Is  it  right  to  dock  a  horse?  Note 
the  hoofs.  Why  do  we  put  shoes  on  them?  Visit  a  black- 
smith or  horseshoer.  (D,  40,  60.) 

BIRDS:  (H,  95,  96,  100;  107  to  125,  478.)  Identification 
study.  Review  the  spring  birds  learned  in  the  first  grade. 
Meadow-lark,*  catbird,  wren,*  oriole,*  bobolink,*  martins. 
Observe  these  and  learn  about  their  ways.  Return  of  the 
birds.  Make  a  bird  calendar.  Observe  the  wild  ducks 
and  geese,  robins,*  blackbirds,  etc.  as  they  come  back.  Note 
their  songs  and  calls,  try  to  identify  by  these  alone.  Em- 
phasize the  beauty  element,  and  develop  sympathy  for  birds, 
a  desire  to  help  and  protect.  In  the  nesting  time  hang  up 
hair,  wool,  threads,  feathers,  etc.  for  wrens,  sparrows,  blue- 
birds, etc.  Observe  the  birds  at  work  on  the  nest.*  Eggs.* 
Observe  but  do  not  steal.  Observe  young,  feeding,  solici- 
tude of  parents.  Protect  and  feed  young  birds  fallen  out 
of  the  nest,  perhaps  taming  them,  but  not  keeping  them  in 


422  NATURE-STUDY 

cage  permanently.  Set  out  at  school  or  home  a  drinking 
trough.  (Attracting  birds:  Chapter  X,  113,  109,  478. 
Food:  1 20.  See  page  124.) 

INSECTS  :  Observational,  informal  lessons  on  June  beetle, 
ground-beetle,  potato-beetle,  butterflies  (when  do  they  first 
appear?),  cecropia  moths*  (observe  the  school  cocoons). 
Insects  on  the  flowers  (willows,  maples,  hepaticas,  pasque- 
flowers, etc.)  Visit  a  beehive,  and  note  the  renewal  of  activ- 
ity. (J,  K,  156,  etc.) 

FROG:  Observe  the  first  pipings  of  the  frogs.  Refer  to 
their  winter  sleep.  Find  eggs  of  frogs  and  toads.  Make 
informal  observations  on  the  aquarium  tadpoles,*  fish,  in- 
sects, etc.  Observe  tadpoles  in  the  pools  at  different  times 
in  the  spring.  Do  not  injure  frogs,  and  especially  toads. 
Pick  up  toads  and  place  them  in  your  garden  to  catch  grubs, 
etc.  Tame  one,  feed  it.  (I,  24.) 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL:  Study  of  whole  plants*  (see  spring  flowers), 
briefly  referring  to  use  of  root,  stem,  and  flower.  (K,  156, 
158,  161,  222.)  Observe  the  insects  on  the  flowers,  (K, 
M,  156,  etc.,  207,  216.)  Simply  refer  to  their  getting  nectar 
and  pollen,  but  omit  the  pollination.  Let  children  taste 
the  nectar  in  the  spurs  and  tubes  of  the  columbine,  honey- 
suckle, sweet  pea,  etc.  Rub  from  marsh  marigold,  roses, 
etc.,  some  of  the  pollen,  and  note  its  powdery  nature. 

TREES:  Identification  study.  (L,  173,  etc.)  Review 
trees  learned  in  the  fall.  Observe  the  bud  development.* 
Force  in  school.  Observe  the  flowers  of  the  plum,*  apple,* 
willow,*  poplar,  maple. 

Special  study  of  the   sugar-maple.*     Sap.     Collect   sap 


A  GRADED   COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY         423 

and  make  syrup  and  sugar.  (L,  S,  T,  220.)  Uses  of  trees 
for  fuel  and  lumber,  nuts,  fruit,  sap,  etc.  The  story  of  a 
pine  board — very  simple.  The  Carpenter.*  Observe  at 
work.  (L,  S,  T,  220,  219.)  Characteristic  form  and 
branching  of  different  trees.*  Trees  in  masses,*  their  beauty, 
landscape  effects.*  Observe  changes*  in  forest  or  grove 
with  the  advancing  season.  (L,  216.) 

FLOWERS  AND  WEEDS  :  Review  those  learned  last  spring. 
Add  pasque-flower,*  wind-flower,*  columbine,*  violets,* 
Dutchman's  breeches.  Weeds :  Dandelion,*  plantain,*  purs- 
lane. (M,  K,  168,  etc.,  and  for  weeds:  222,  228,  231,  230.) 
Let  children  collect,  observe  where  the  flowers  grow.  Do 
not  waste.  Make  a  simple  study  of  characteristic  features 
of  flower,*  leaf,*  stem,*  and  root.*  Learn  the  parts  *  of  a 
typical  flower.  Observe  the  development  from  flower  to 
fruit  * — apple,  plum,  dandelion.  Purpose  of  flowers.  The 
pleasure  we  get  from  them.  Insect  visitors — see  above. 
Press  the  flowers  studied,  and  make  a  decorated  booklet, 
with  brief  description  of  place,  appearance,  etc.,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  time  of  flowering. 

GARDENING:  Germination  studies.*  (See  chapter  XVI.) 
Note  conditions  of  moisture,  and  temperature  necessary. 
Try  to  raise  some  seeds  without  water  and  without  warmth. 
Make  glass  germinators,  and  observe  the  behavior  of  the  seed- 
lings *  in  coming  out.  Plant  seeds  in  sawdust  or,  better, 
in  soil,  and  observe  later  stages  of  the  seedling.  Peas,  beans, 
corn,  grains,  squash,  sunflower,  radish  are  good.  Get  fresh, 
seasoned  seeds.  (K,  156,  154,  190,  196,  222,  228,  231,  etc.) 

School-garden:  Make  class  or  group  beds.*  (Q,  237, 
234,  240,  Chapter  XVI,  481.)  Perhaps  lay  out  a  miniature 
farm*  with  different  crops,  vegetables,  and  flowers.  The 


424  NATURE-STUDY 

coarser  work  of  spading,  etc.,  to  be  done  by  upper  classes  or 
some  one  else.  This  grade  to  select  seeds,  and  have  a  part  in 
planning  the  garden..  Let  them  mark  off  the  plots,  sow  and 
transplant,  water,  weed,  etc.  Teach  right  methods.  (221 ,  2 29, 
240,  222,  etc.,  seed  catalogues.  For  flowers  and  vegetables 
in  this  grade  see  page  295.)  Transplant  seedlings  started 
in  school.  Begin  a  tree  nursery.  (220,  240.) 

Dig  up  and  transplant,  in  borders,  school-garden  or  window- 
boxes,  wild  flowers — hepatica,  bloodroot,  columbine,  vio- 
lets, etc. 

Encourage  the  children  to  help  their  parents  in  the  mak- 
ing of  home,  flower,  and  vegetable  gardens. 

Remove  the  mulching  from  the  tulip  beds. 

THIRD  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD  :  While  these  are,  in  the  main,  the  same 
as  in  the  first  and  second  grades,  the  children  are  now  older 
and  are  capable  of  more  observation  and  reasoning.  They 
are  more  interested  in  the  practical  application  of  their 
knowledge,  hence  they  should  be  taught  more  of  manual 
training,  geography,  and  hygiene.  Though  field  work  should 
be  continued  as  much  as  possible,  more  indoor  study  can  be 
made,  relying  somewhat  upon  previous  observations  and 
experiences  of  the  child,  and  using  pictures  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  before  to  represent  the  thing  studied.  But  the  ac- 
tual object  should  be  used  whenever  possible  as  the  basis  of 
the  lesson.  More  can  be  done  with  the  direction  for  prelimi- 
nary observations  by  the  children.  Less  familiar  types  may 
be  studied.  The  principle  of  variety  need  not  be  carried 
so  far  as  in  lower  grades,  and  there  may  be  more  of  a  se- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         425 


quence  in  the  lessons.  Causal  relations,  adaptations, 
comparisons,  and  grouping  can  be  worked  out  a  little  more. 
The  method  of  presentation,  although  it  should  still  be  some- 
what conversational,  should  be  more  formal.  The  collect- 
ing instinct  may  be  utilized,  and  the  sympathetic  attitude  to- 
ward nature  should  be  preserved  and  extended  to  an  active 
protection  of  birds,  flowers,  etc.  Develop  the  aesthetic  ap- 
preciation of  nature.  The  work  of  this  grade  is  immediately 
preliminary  to  formal  geography,  hence  the  geographic  ele- 
ment is  emphasized.  The  nature  work  may  be  aided  by 
written  tasks,  drawing,  painting,  etc.,  and  by  supplementary 
nature  readers. 

For  suggestions  for  art-study  in  connection  with  nature-study,  see  p.  57. 
The  asterisk  indicates  subjects  suitable  for  art  treatment.  The  letters  indi- 
cate primary  references,  p.  511;  the  numbers,  general  reference  list,  p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

INDUSTRIAL:  Review  briefly  our  chief  needs  and  the 
sources  of  food,  shelter,  materials,  clothing.  Study  of  textile 
art.*  Make  a  study  of  Indian  life  —  Hiawatha.*  Apply 
the  above.  (U,  S,  N.)  Discuss  division  of  labor  and  trades, 
origin  and  advantages.  (U,  T.)  Domestication  of  animals, 
advantage  over  hunting  and  fishing.  Planting  of  crops, 
advantages.  (D,  U,  60.)  Shepherd  life*  (Arabs,  early 
Jews).  (U,  V,  T,  60.)  Agriculture  and  man,  origin,  advan- 
tages of  the  farmer,  dependence  of  others  upon  him.  (U,  V, 
T,  R.)  City  life,*  stores,  transportation,  lighting,  etc.,  briefly 
considered.  City  industries.  Relation  of  the  city  to  the 
country.  Commerce.  (V,  T.)  Stories  of  people  in  other 
lands  to  give  idea  of  different  climates,  products,  and  modes 
of  living.  (W,  V.) 


426  NATURE-STUDY 

EARTH-STUDY:  Home  geography,  land  and  water  forms, 
the  lay  of  the  land.  School-yard  drainage.  Brook  study:* 
Erosion,  sediment,  deposits,  falls,  rapids.  Apply  to  river. 
Observe  uses  of  the  river.*  Study  of  valley  in  relation  to 
transportation,  settlement.  Weathering  of  rocks  and  soil 
formation.  This  should  all  be  studied  in  the  field.  (V,  326, 
327,  328,  335,  337.) 

Earth  water:  Source.  Springs  and  wells.  City  water  supply. 
Purification  from  sediment  (experiments.)  (As  last,  and  263, 
269,  264.) 

Clay  * :  Properties  and  uses,  where  found.  Visit  clay  bank, 
brickyard.  The  making  of  bricks.  The  mason.*  Observe 
masons  at  work.  (T,  S,  V.)  Coal:  Where  does  it  come 
from?  Uses  in  home,  engine,  factory,  smithy.  Alittle  about 
a  coal  mine.  The  miner.  (V,  T,  348,  330,  337.)  Common 
metals :  Learn  to  recognize.  Simple  experiments  on  their 
elasticity,  hardness,  etc.,  and  illustrations  of  their  uses.  A 
little  about  primitive  man  before  and  after  his  discovery  of 
the  use  of  metals.  Go  about  the  schoolroom  and  find 
articles  made  of  metals.  Make  a  list.  Do  the  same  at 
home,  naming  the  metal  used.  (V,  U,  T,  S,  263,  269,  etc.) 
Table  salt— the  story  of.  (V,  263,  S.) 

WEATHER:  Seasonal  changes,  effects  upon  landscape,* 
plants,  and  animals.  (A,  6.)  Study  of  moisture  in  the  air, 
clouds,*  rain,*  snow,*  frost  crystals,  ice.*  Illustrate  as  far 
as  possible  by  simple  experiments  in  physics.  Note  the 
beauty  of  each  phenomenon  and  the  benefits  we  derive 
from  it.  Also  show  the  benefit  to  plants  and  animals.  Learn 
the  use  of  the  thermometer,*  the  freezing  and  the  boiling 
point.  Keep  a  record  of  cloudiness,  rain,  wind,  and  tempera- 
ture for  a  short  time  each  season.  Which  wind  brings  the 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         427 

cold,  etc.  Learn  directions.  (X,  V,  327,  326,  328,  etc.)  Con- 
nect with  nature  myths.* 

ASTRONOMY:  (Z,  V.)  Sun's  rising  and  setting,  position 
and  times  in  different  seasons.  Length  of  day,  noon  shadow, 
day  and  night.  The  north  star,  how  used?  How  found? 
Big  and  Little  Dippers,  and  other  simple  constellations.  The 
beauty  of  the  stars.  Read  star  myths.*  Brief  reference  to 
the  phases  of  the  moon. 

PHYSICS:  How  we  heat  our  buildings.  Kinds  of  fuel 
used,  sources.  (S,  V.)  Stoves,  fireplaces,  furnaces,  hot 
water  and  steam — very  simply  explained,  mainly  the  con- 
struction. (258,  250,  257,  etc.,  S.)  Primitive  method  of 
heating.  (U.)  Other  uses  of  fire.  (T,  S.)  The  ther- 
mometer, parts,  scale,  uses.  (251,  250,  257,  etc.)  Cook- 
ing. (Z,  304,  303.)  How  our  homes  are  lighted.  Com- 
pare with  primitive  man.  (U.)  Simple  study  of  candle,* 
lamp,*  electric  and  gas  light.  (S,  T,  250,  etc.) 

Experiments  in  evaporation,  and  condensation  of  water, 
melting  and  freezing.  (V,  X,  2  5 1 ,  2  50,  2  5  7 . )  Make  crystals 
of  alum,*  salt,  and  sugar  from  solutions,  by  cooling  and  evap- 
oration. Show  crystals  of  sugar  and  salt  under  a  reading 
lens.  Show  crystals  of  quartz;  examine  snow  crystals  * 
in  a  storm.  (V,  T,  251,  250,  257,  263,  268.) 

Make  a  simple  study  of  the  magnetic  compass  *  and  learn 
to  find  directions  with  it.  (V,  251,  250,  257,  etc.)  Use  on  the 
ocean. 

HYGIENE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY:  What  we  eat  and  drink. 
Should  be  pure  and  clean.  The  refrigerator — what  we  keep 
in  it,  why?  (S,  N,  O,  P,  Z.)  What  teeth  are  for,  different 
shapes  and  uses.  Why  we  should  chew  well.  Care  of  the 
teeth.  Cleanliness,  bathing.  Proper  clothing.  Avoidance 


428  NATURE-STUDY 

of  colds.  (S,  T,  Z.)  Simple  talks  on  our  muscles  and  bones, 
what  they  are  for,  and  how  to  use  them  properly.  Good 
sports  and  exercise  for  children.  Reading  and  writing  post- 
ure and  hygiene.  (Z,  368a,  372,  etc.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Detailed  study  of  sheep  *  and  goat  *  (D,  R,  S) 
from  the  economic  point  of  view,  especially.  Some  study  of 
structure,  covering,  horns,  hoofs.  Observe  if  possible  in 
pasture  *  or  barnyard.  Domestication.  (U,  O.)  Shepherd 
life.*  (U,  R,  V,  T.)  Shearing,  cleaning,  spinning,  weaving, 
and  dyeing  (the  story  of  a  dress  or  coat).  The  weaver. 
Brief  study  of  the  development  of  the  textile  art.  (U,  S,  T,V.) 

BIRDS  :  Observe  the  habits  of  the  birds  in  the  fall.  Rec- 
ognize those  learned  last  spring.  Observe  the  migration. 
Note  when  certain  species,  the  barn  swallows,  for  example, 
leave.  Some  reasons  for  their  going.  Observe  the  black- 
birds in  the  fields.  What  does  the  farmer  think  of  them? 
What  do  the  swallows  feed  upon  ?  Where  are  they  generally 
to  be  seen?  Why?  Learn  to  recognize  bobwhite,*  thistle 
bird,*  humming-bird.*  Observe  habits  of  each  and  its  food, 
if  possible.  (H,  95  to  106  for  identification  and  habits; 
100,  1 08  for  migration;  120,  246  "Some  common  birds" 
for  food.  See  page  119.)  Have  a  canary*  in  school.  Let 
the  children  have  the  responsibility  of  its  care.  (C.)  Collect 
old  nests  and  label  them  if  known. 

INSECTS:     (J,  126  to  151,  also  47,  33,  34,  18,  etc.) 

Life  histories :  Review  rapidly  that  of  the  milkweed  butter- 
fly* and  the  cecropia  moth.*  Try  to  raise  the  cabbage 
caterpillar  to  maturity.  Collect  cocoons,  and  hang  up  to 


A    GRADED   COURSE   OF      NATURE-STUDY         429 

observe  in  spring.  (127,  130,  134.)  Make  a  study  of  the 
life  of  the  dragon-fly.*  With  the  children  collect  large 
nymphs  of  the  dragon-fly  in  pools  and  ponds.  Keep  in  aqua- 
rium. Feed  with  mosquito  wrigglers,  small  water  shrimps, 
etc.  Observe  the  habits  of  the  nymph.  Some  of  the  nymphs 
may  be  observed  emerging  from  their  skin,  a  very  interest- 
ing sight  for  the  children.  Observe  the  wings  of  the  dragon- 
fly when  first  out,  then  the  expansion.  Observe  the  actions 
of  the  adult.  Uses.  Mosquito  wrigglers  may  be  observed 
in  a  similar  manner  to  develop  to  maturity.  (135.)  In  the 
above  insects  the  babies  do  not  look  at  all  like  their  parents, 
but  change  marvellously  in  their  growth.  Find  young  grass- 
hoppers without  any  wings.  Compare  them  with  the  adults. 
Here  the  babies  resemble  the  parents  from  the  beginning. 
A  little  structure  study.  The  locust  :*  Principal  parts  of 
body,  wings,  legs.  Observe  the  mouth,  the  eyes,  the  feelers. 
Unfold  the  wings.  Note  their  beauty  and  their  veins.  A 
beetle:*  Chief  characteristics — hard  wing  covers,  find  del- 
icate under-wings.  Observe  lady-bugs  *  flying  or  tucking 
away  their  wings.  Note  hard  shell  on  the  outside  of  the 
whole  body.  How  many  legs  do  beetles  have?  Grass- 
hoppers ?  Dragon-fly,  adult :  General  shape  of  body,  rings 
on  abdomen.  Where  are  the  legs  and  wings  fastened? 
How  many  legs?  How  many  wings?  How  many  has  the 
grasshopper?  Note  the  gauzy, netted  wings,  observe  flight. 
Note  the  big  eyes,  the  pretty  colors  that  play  on  the  eyes, 
the  colors  of  the  body  and  wings.  Do  not  fear  the  dragon- 
fly. It  is  harmless  and  useful  (why?).  Butterfly:  Great 
wings,  beautiful  colors.  Note  the  powdery  scales  that  come 
off,  the  hairy  body,  the  knobbed  feelers.  Unroll  the  trunk 
with  a  pin.  Observe  a  butterfly  feeding.  (J.  47,  15,  24,  33.) 


430  NATURE-STUDY 

Visit  a  hive,*  an  observation  hive,  if  possible.  Observe 
the  great  number  of  bees.  Observe  them  at  their  work. 
Note  the  pollen  baskets  on  the  returning  bees.  Observe 
them  collecting  nectar  and  pollen  from  flowers.  What  in- 
sects do  we  not  like  ?  Which  bite  us  or  sting  ?  What  insects 
are  troublesome  in  the  house  ?  Why  ?  Examine  the  leaves 
flowers  and  fruit,  in  the  garden  or  orchard.  See  how  worm- 
eaten  or  injured  they  are  by  insects.  Note  the  effects  of  the 
potato  beetle.  Examine  wormy  apples.  Find  the  little 
caterpillar  of  the  codling  moth  in  the  apple.  Many  insects 
do  us  harm  or  eat  our  crops,  etc.  Make  a  list  of  those  ob- 
served. (148,  132,  136.)  Collect  with  the  class  pond  in- 
sects— whirligig  beetles,  water  boatmen,  water  striders, 
water  beetles,  larvae  of  dragon-flies  and  water  beetles,  electric- 
light  bugs,  etc.,  also  other  pond  creatures — crayfish,  clams, 
snails,*  etc.,  and  put  them  in  different  aquariums  with  pond 
plants,  and  make  simple  informal  observations  on  them. 
Keep  goldfish,  minnows,  or  other  fish.*  (For  keeping  aqua- 
rium see  page  165,  also  reference  No.  47,  130,  126,  93.) 

MISCELLANEOUS:  Keep  lizards,*  toads,*  turtles.*  Ob- 
serve. Refer  to  hibernation. 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING:  Put  garden  in  order  after  the  summer's 
neglect.  Observe  the  harm  done  by  insects,  drought,  and 
wind.  Collect  flowers  for  school-room  decoration.*  Collect 
the  vegetables,  etc.  Collect  seeds  and  put  up  in  labelled 
packages  for  next  year.  Give  seeds  away  to  those  who  have 
none.  Have  a  school-room  exhibit  of  the  things  raised  in  the 
school-garden.  Set  out  bulbs  (tulips,  crocus)  for  spring.  Later, 
observe  the  effects  of  frost  on  different  plants.  Protect  such 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         431 

as  are  desired  to  save  a  while.  Later,  clean  up  the  garden  for 
winter.  Mulch  the  bulb  bed.  Protect  the  seedling  trees. 
(Chap.  XVI,  229,  221,  240,  Q.) 

GENERAL:  Gather  garden  products  from  school-garden. 
Study  them  from  the  economic  point  of  view.  (P,  R,  S.) 
How  kept  in  the  winter.  How  prepared  for  table.  Special 
study  of  the  potato.*  Dig  up  and  see  how  the  tubers  grow. 
Importance  of  potato  as  food.  Simple  study  of  starch.  Try 
to  make  starch  from  grated  potato.  (P,  S,  K,  222,  228.) 
The  potato  a  storehouse  of  starch  food.  What  does  the 
potato  grow  tubers  for? 

Native  fruits  *  and  nuts  :*  Visit  orchard  or  nut  grove. 
(S,  N,  R,  238.)  Their  edibility,  beauty.  What  does  the 
tree  grow  fruit  for?  (K,  154,  156,  etc.)  Find  the  seed  part 
in  different  fruits.  Plant  some  seasoned  fruit-seeds.  Briefly 
tell  the  story  of  an  apple-seed — life  cycle  of  tree. 

Note  the  development  of  flowers  into  fruit,  the  forma- 
tion and  the  scattering  of  the  seed.  Observe  and  collect 
seeds  that  sail,*  seeds  that  "steal  a  ride,"  burs.*  Make  a 
seed  chart  of  each  kind.  How  the  wind  helps  seeds  to  travel. 
How  people  and  animals  carry  the  burs.  (N,  K,  154,  156, 
158,  161.) 

TREES:  Identification  study:  Review  those  learned  in 
previous  years.  Add  pear,  beech,  hickory.  (173,  etc.,  L.) 
Raspberry,  gooseberry  shrubs. 

Autumn  foliage,*  landscape  effects.*  Color  changes  in 
particular  trees.*  Collect,  and  make  booklet  with  leaves 
mounted  and  describing  each  tree  represented,  perhaps  a 
painting  of  the  tree  in  color,  and  a  drawing  of  it  later 
when  bare.  Note  the  buds  on  the  twigs.*  What  is  a  bud  ? 
(L,  216,  K.) 


432  NATURE-STUDY 

FLOWERS  AND  WEEDS:  Review  autumn  flowers  learned 
previously.  Add  harebell,*  thistle.*  Note  beauty  of  plants 
as  individuals  and  in  masses,  the  colors  in  the  prairies, 
meadows,  copses.  Note  the  going  to  seed,  and  the  sailing 
seeds,  and  burs.  Bring  in  wild  flowers  to  school-room.  Dig 
up  roots  of  wild  sunflowers,  asters,  goldenrods,  daisies,  etc., 
and  set  them  in  borders  or  corners  of  the  school  ground  or  at 
home.  (M,  168,  etc.)  Thistle,  burdock,  sticktights,  bur 
marigold.  Study  the  burs.*  (268,  etc.,  154,  156,  246 
"  Weeds.") 

WINTER 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Fur  bearers:  Muskrat,  beaver,*  mink,  rac- 
coon, bear.*  Study  the  animals  themselves  as  to  general 
appearance,  homes,  habits,  food,  uses.  Briefly  study  the 
nature  of  fur.  Compare  with  hair  and  wool.  Why  do  we 
dress  in  furs  ?  Stories  of  primitive  man,*  Indians,  Eskimo. 
Examine  children's  wearing  apparel  for  furs  of  different 
kinds — remembering,  however,  that  many  trade  names  of 
furs  are  misleading.  Stories  of  trapping*  and  hunting.* 
The  story  of  the  beaver  appeals  particularly  to  children. 
(E,  F,  S,  78,  17,  28,  67,  433.  4340 

The  Reindeer  * :  In  connection  with  Eskimo  life.  Ap- 
pearance, qualities,  uses.  (F,  W,  23,  26.) 

BIRDS:*  Winter  residents.  (H,  478.)  Feed.  Observe 
habits,  food,  shelter.  Make  a  list  of  the  kinds  that  are  to 

be  seen. 

« 

PLANTS. 

Visit  a  greenhouse  and  note  the  temperature,  the  moist 
air,  and  the  plants.  Conditions  are  tropical.  Many  of 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         433 

the  plants  there — palms,  lilies,  orchids,  were  brought  from 
the  tropics.  Read  about  the  south-land  where  the  birds 
are.  Describe  the  climate  and  vegetation.  The  fruits  that 
grow  there — oranges,*  lemons,*  pine-apples,*  bananas,* 
cocoanuts.*  How  the  natives  get  them.  How  they  come 
to  us.  Make  a  simple  study  of  these  fruits.  (O,  V,  W.) 

Make  a  list  of  plants  used  for  food,  classified  as  fruit,  nuts, 
vegetables,  grains,  etc.;  of  plants  that  furnish  us  material 
for  clothing,  of  trees  used  for  lumber.  (S,  N,  O,  P.)  Make 
a  special  study  of  flax.  Have  raw  flax.  Treat  it  for  retting, 
get  out  the  fibre,  spin,  weave  and  dye  it.  (S,  T.) 

Observe  evergreens.*  Review  names.  Note  beauty,  espe- 
cially when  grown  in  clumps  or  groves.  Examine  for  birds- 
nests.  Observe  the  birds  going  to  bed  in  the  evergreens. 
They  are  much  used  by  birds  for  shelter.  (L,  173,  etc.) 
The  story  of  a  pine -board,  simply  told.  The  carpenter. 
Observe  one  at  work.  Note  tools.  (S,  T.) 

GARDENING:  See  work  for  Grade  II.  Window-cultures: 
Ferns,  asparagus,  umbrella  plant,  tulips,*  hyacinths  *  are 
good  for  the  window.  Start  spring  cultures.  Start  pansy, 
bachelor's  button,  marigold,  etc.  Plant  pieces  of  potato  with 
eyes,  and  observe  where  the  growth  takes  place.  Discuss 
use  of  potato  to  the  plant.  Keep  these  for  later  transplant- 
ing. An  interesting  experiment  in  the  North  is  raising  a 
cotton  plant  from  the  seed.  Send  for  good  seeds.  Plant 
early  indoors  and  set  out  in  garden  later.  (Chap.  XVI,  Q, 
221,  etc.) 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:  Early  in  spring  begin  to  look  for  the  returning 
birds.  Make  a  bird  calendar  or  book  to  record  arrivals 


434  NATURE-STUDY 

by  date.  Later,  the  list  should  be  looked  over,  and  the  early 
and  late  arrivals  compared  as  to  probable  food.  Also 
interest  the  boys  in  putting  up  bird  boxes  for  wrens  and 
bluebirds.  (Chap.  X,  113,  109,  478.) 

Identification  study:  Birds  learned  before  and  song  spar- 
row, phoebe,  waxwing,*  rose-breasted  grosbeak.*  Observe 
general  characteristics  of  each  bird.  Use  color  charts.  Ob- 
serve outdoors  the  habits,  song,  beauty.  The  nesting,  and 
the  young.  (H,  95,  etc.,  107,  etc.)  Do  not  harm,  but  pro- 
tect. (113,  478.)  Place  nest  materials  for  the  birds.  Set 
out  a  drinking  trough.  Make  one  at  the  school.  (See  page 

I43-) 

In  the  study  of  the  birds  note  more  particularly  adapta- 
tions of  feet  and  bills  to  food  and  mode  of  life.  (108;  117, 

34,  33-) 

How  birds  help  the  farmer,  gardener,  and  fruit  raiser — as 
insect  eaters,  (no,  108,  117,  120.  See  chapter  IX.) 

INSECTS:  Observe  insects  in  the  spring  flowers.  (J,  200, 
207.)  In  the  garden  note  the  cut-worms  and  the  harm  they 
do.  What  is  a  cut-worm  ?  Dig  up  grub-worms — baby  June 
beetles.  Tell  briefly  of  the  development.  Observe  adults. 
(J,  132,  136,  126.) 

MISCELLANEOUS:  Informal  observations  of  early  frogs, 
eggs,  tadpoles,  toads,  and  aquarium  studies  of  clam,  snail, 
insects. 

Brief  study  of  the  garter  snake.  Have  one  in  a  cage  if 
possible.  Teach  children  not  to  fear  or  harm.  These  snakes 
are  not  poisonous,  and  do  good.  How  ?  Make  a  simple  study 
of  motions,  coiling,  scaly  skin,  shedding  of  skin,  eyes  with- 
out lids,  forked  tongue  (harmless).  Try  to  overcome  preju- 
dice against  this  harmless  reptile.  (I,  33,  34,  17.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         435 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL:  Simple  study  of  what  the  root,  stem,  leaves, 
and  flowers  of  a  plant  are  for.  Examine  typical  examples  of 
these  organs.  Seedlings  *  are  good  for  this.  Why  do  we 
water  the  plant?  Observe  delicate  root-hairs  on  the  roots 
of  seedlings  grown  on  a  blotter  under  glass.  These  are  the 
sucking  hairs.  Observe  the  sap.  Where  does  it  come  from  ? 
Use?  Do  not  try  to  teach  the  exact  function  of  the  leaves, 
but  show  that  they  are  essential  to  the  plant,  by  cutting  off  the 
leaves  of  a  well-developed  seedling  as  they  appear.  Note 
how  the  plant  finally  dies.  The  purpose  of  the  flower  can  be 
observed  by  noting  the  progress  *  of  a  flower  (sweet  pea)  to 
the  fruit.  Open  fruit  and  find  seed.  Flower  plan,*  stamens, 
and  pistils,  parts  named,  and  general  appearance  noted.  (K.) 

Simple  experimental  culture  of  seedlings  to  show  that 
plants  need  water,  heat,  and  light  for  growth.  Make  very 
simple,  observational,  informal.  (K,  152,  156,  158,  etc.) 

Plants  can  move:  Observe  a  morning-glory  climb  by 
twining.*  Observe  a  sweet-pea  tendril  catching  a  support. 
Touch  a  sensitive  plant.*  (K,  154,  156.) 

TREES:  Review  trees  formerly  learned.  Distinguish* 
hard  and  soft  maple,  boxelder,  birch,  cottonwood  (compare 
with  willow).  (173,  etc.) 

Shrubs:  Lilac,  snowball,  flowering  currant,  berry  shrubs. 
(185,  189.) 

Observe  trees  in  masses — the  orchard,*  the  grove,  the 
park,  the  forest.*  Name  all  that  you  have  learned. 

Arbor  Day:     (See  gardening  below.) 

FLOWERS:*  Marsh  marigold,  buttercup,  spring  beauty, 
dog  tooth,  violet,  rose,  Jack-in-the-pulpit.  Associate  them 
with  certain  situations — marsh,  woods,  dry  hills,  etc. 


436  NATURE-STUDY 

Make  a  flower  book  or  calendar,  showing  the  spring  flow- 
ers in  the  order  of  their  appearance.  Paint  the  flowers. 
Write  simple  description  of  each.  (M,  K,  168,  etc.) 

GARDENING  :  Remove  mulch  from  bulb  beds.  Plan  garden, 
select  vegetables  and  flower  seeds.  (See  list  p.  295.)  Send 
for  seed  catalogues.  Make  sketch  or  plan  of  the  garden. 
The  older  pupils  should  prepare  the  soil  for  this  grade,  but 
these  may  assist,  and  do  the  finishing.  Stake  out  group  or 
individual  beds.  Sow,  plant,  transplant,  in  season.  Set  out 
the  cotton  (some  in  pots)  and  the  potato  slips.  Make  a 
special  study  of  the  life  cycle  of  the  potato.  Flax  would  also 
be  a  good  study  for  this  grade.  (Q,  Chap.  XVI,  221,  etc.) 
Make  indoor  experimental  soil  cultures  with  seedlings,  using 
sand,  loam,  fertilizer,  clay,  etc.,  and  observing  which  do  the 
best.  (222,  228,  196.) 

Visit  greenhouse  and  observe  spring  planting  of  the  gar- 
dener. Visit  a  truck-garden. 

Teach  responsibility  for  the  care  of  beds  and  tools.  Give 
lessons  in  weeding,  hoeing,  watering.  Study  weeds  in  the 
garden.  Note  effects. 

Set  out  cuttings  of  coleus  and  geranium  started  indoors. 

Arbor  Day:  Make  cuttings  of  ivy  and  woodbine,  and 
set  out  around  fences  and  buildings.  (Chapter  XVIII.)  The 
self -clinging  woodbine  should  be  used.  Plant  Boston  ivy 
and  English  ivy  where  hardy  Add  to  the  wild  flower  garden. 

FOURTH  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD  :  The  children  of  this  grade  having  a 
better  basis  are  able  to  study  and  understand  more  difficult 
matter  than  those  of  the  third  grade.  Their  imagination  is 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   MATURE-STUDY         437 

stronger  and  more  active,  their  power  of  observation  is 
keener  and  exerts  more  restraint  upon  their  imagination. 
They  can  comprehend  details  better,  and  with  their  in- 
creased reasoning  power  they  are  able  to  compare,  group, 
and  generalize  more  successfully.  But  on  the  whole  their 
interests  are  not  very  different  from  those  of  the  preceding 
grade.  Therefore  read  the  suggestions  at  the  head  of  the 
outline  for  Year  III,  page  424.  The  economic  side  of  nature- 
study  and  the  application  of  scientific  principles  interest  this 
grade  more. 

In  this  grade  geography  begins  to  diverge  as  a  formal  study. 
Yet  the  close  connection  with  nature-study  requires  a  good 
deal  of  correlation  between  the  two.  Some  phases  of  the 
geography  can  be  more  effectively  taught  as  nature-study, 
earth  forces  for  example,  and  the  plants,  animals,  and  mineral 
resources  on  which  the  great  industries  depend. 

Suggestions  for  correlated  art  study — see  page  57.  The  asterisk  indicates 
subjects  for  drawing,  painting,  etc.  Numbers  indicate  general  reference  list, 
page  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

EARTH  STUDY:  Local  physiographic  features.  (V,  326, 
327,  328,  etc.)  Pebbles.  Why  they  are  round.  Collect  in 
a  brook  *  or  along  a  lake  shore.*  Observe  the  rolling  and 
chafing  of  the  pebbles.  Experiment  with  angular  soft  stones, 
and  rub  off  the  corners.  (V,  326,  327,  328,  etc.) 

Clay:  Begin  in  pottery  to  interest  children  in  the  nature 
and  origin  of  clay.  Visit  clay  bed,  brickyard,  pottery.  (343, 
324,  S32.  339-)  The  story  of  the  potter.  (U,  S,  T.) 

Granite :  Visit  ledges,  or  observe  boulder.  Note  bleached 
appearance  outside  as  compared  with  freshly  broken  pieces. 
Note  the  pitting  on  the  outside.  This  is  due  to  the  decay  or 


438  NATURE-STUDY 

weathering.  Clay  comes  from  these  places.  What  are  the 
forces  of  weathering?  Note  the  variety  of  colors  in  the 
granite,  showing  its  composite  nature.  Study  mica,  feldspar, 
quartz.  Make  very  simple,  observational.  Learn  to  rec- 
ognize typical  limestone,  sandstone,  and  shale.  (343,  324, 

332>  339-) 

Collect  and  observe  different  soils.  Keep  for  later  cultural 
experiments.  Visit  a  quarry.  Note  the  layers  of  rock, 
springs,  fissures,  fossils.  What  are  fossils?  (343,  324,  332, 
339.)  Collect  pieces  of  rock  and  fossils. 

Begin  a  mineral  collection.  Put  into  it  the  rocks  and 
minerals  studied  above,  also  metals,  and  ores. 

Metals:  Gold,  silver,  iron.  Simple  study  of  how  they 
occur.  The  ores:  Very  simple  explanation  of  extraction  or 
reduction  of  ores.  What  are  these  metals  used 'for?  (343, 
332,  339,  320.)  Which  would  you  rather  do  without  ?  Make 
a  list  of  all  the  things  made  of  iron.  Compare  primitive  man 
with  us  in  respect  to  the  use  of  iron.  (U.) 

WEATHER:  Beauty  of  the  seasons.  Make  a  seasonal  or 
monthly  record  in  color  of  the  changes  in  a  certain  bit  of 
landscape.  Make  a  book  of  it.  Review  atmospheric  moist- 
ure studied  in  Grade  III.  Develop  idea  of  climate.  (V,  W.) 
Make  weather  charts  for  several  weeks  in  different  seasons, 
recording  wind  direction,  daily  temperature,  cloud  forms, 
rain,  snow,  storms.  Grandeur  of  storms.  Uses  of  the  wind, 
snow,  ice,  rain.  Simpler  cloud  forms.  (X,  V,  326,  327,  328, 

329-) 

PHYSICS:  Conduction  of  heat:  Why  are  handles  of 
teapots,  stove-pokers,  etc.,  hot?  Illustrate  experimentally 
conductors  and  nonconductors.  Why  do  we  have  a  wooden 
handle  on  a  flat-iron?  Why  use  holders  of  cloth  for  hot 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         439 

things?  Find  more  applications.  Stoves,  clothing,  ice- 
boxes, ice-houses.  (251,  250,  257,  etc.) 

ASTRONOMY:  (Y,  392,  398,  329,  400.)  Simpler  con- 
stellations. Moon  and  its  phases.  Talks  with  illustrations 
to  show  the  relation  of  sun,  earth,  and  moon. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:  List  of  staple  foods.  Why 
we  cook  them.  (S,  Z,  303,  304.)  Simple  talk  on  what 
happens  to  the  food  in  the  stomach.  Hygiene  of  eating. 
(Z,  368,  etc.)  Freshness  of  meat,  fruits,  etc.,  how  preserved. 
Clean  kitchen,  clean  cellar.  Why?  (Z,  304,  209,  368,  etc.) 

Milk  as  food.     Purity.     (Z,  209,  368.) 

Water:  Sources,  contamination,  disease.  Make  very  sim- 
ple. (Z,  209,  368,  262.) 

Temperance:  Begin  to  develop  an  attitude  for  it.  (Z, 
368,  etc.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS  :  Observe,  identify,  and  study  the  small  rodents ; 
squirrels  *  (red  and  gray),  chipmunks,*  gophers  *  (striped 
and  pocket),  muskrat,  rabbit,*  rats,  and  mice.  Note  habits, 
food,  homes,  colors,  fur,  teeth,  claws,  tails,  and  make  some 
comparisons  in  structure  especially  of  teeth — they  all  gnaw. 
The  harm  from  these  animals  or  their  uses  should  be  dis- 
cussed. Hunting  and  trapping  stories.*  (E,  15,  33,  34,  25, 
17,  61  (Story  of  "  Raggylug" ),  277,  433,  434.) 

BIRDS:  The  birds  of  prey:  Hawks,  great  horned  owl,* 
barred  owl,*  screech  owl,  snowy  owl,  eagle. 

Observe  hawks  soaring,  perhaps  find  owls  in  hollow  trees 
in  vicinity.  Refer  to  thieving  of  these  birds.  What  else  do 
they  feed  on?  With  bird  charts  study  the  sharp  shinned 
hawk,  Cooper's  hawk,  the  marsh  hawk,  the  red-shouldered 


440  NATURE-STUDY 

hawk.  Compare  general  appearance,  especially  note  similar 
beaks  and  claws.  What  are  they  used  for?  Look  up  the 
food  of  these  hawks  and  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  harmful- 
ness  of  all  hawks.  What  good  do  they  do?  What  kind 
of  hawks  should  not  be  shot  ?  Consider  the  owls  in  a  similar 
way.  Compare  their  feet  and  bills  with  those  of  hawks. 
Hawks  and  owls  are  "relatives,"  and  show  a  "family  like- 
ness." (H,  95,  etc.  120.) 

Swimming  Birds:  Tame  wild  ducks  and  geese.  The  fall 
hunting  season  would  be  an  appropriate  time  for  this  study. 
Observe  the  birds  brought  in  by  hunters.  Observe  the  tame 
ducks  and  geese.  Note  their  bills,*  and  feet,*  their  walk, 
how  they  swim  and  dip  with  their  long  necks.  What  are 
they  dipping  for?  What  else  do  they  eat?  Observe  them 
in  the  water.  Do  they  get  their  feathers  wet?  Why?  Try 
a  little  experiment  with  oiled  and  unoiled  chicken  feathers 
in  water.  Preening.  Moulting.  Feathers  used  by  man. 
The  eider  duck.  For  what  other  reasons  do  we  keep  ducks  ? 
Show  picture  of  wild  mallard.*  Compare  with  the  common 
tame  duck.  Domestication.  Show  pictures  of  other  kinds 
of  wild  ducks,  especially  the  teal  and  wood  duck.  Note 
beautiful  colors.  Observe  the  migration  of  ducks.  Can 
tame  ducks  and  geese  fly?  Why  do  they  not  fly  away? 
Where  do  the  others  go  ?  Study  the  swans  *  in  the  parks. 
Note  their  purity  and  grace.  Observe  how  skilfully  they 
swim.  Are  they  graceful  walkers?  Why  not?  What  is 
the  use  of  such  feet?  Refer  to  wild  swans.  Compare  all 
these  birds  as  to  general  appearance,  and  especially  as  to 
feet.  These  also  show  a  "family  likeness."  (G,  H,  95,  etc., 
118,  120,  124.) 

Game    birds:     Ducks,    geese,    bobwhite,    ruffed-grouse, 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF'  NATURE-STUDY         441 

prairie  chicken.  (H,  95,  etc.)  Brief  study  of  their  general 
appearance,  where  found,  how  hunted.  Brief  explanation 
of  the  reason  for  game  laws.  Show  the  justice  in  them. 
Begin  to  develop  an  attitude  in  favor  of  such  laws  and  a 
willingness  to  abide  by  them.  (113,  117,  120,  246  "Game 
Laws.") 

Observe  and  identify  bank-swallows.  Compare  with 
barn-swallows  and  martin. 

INSECTS:  Observe  insects  on  flowers.  Discuss  in  a 
simple  way  pollination  and  the  necessity  for  it  in  producing 
fruit.  (200,  207,  215,  156,  158,  H.)  Note  the  injury  done 
to  garden  plants  and  tree  foliage  by  insects.  Observe  espe- 
cially the  cabbage  caterpillar.  Raise  some  to  maturity.* 
Note  the  potato  beetle.  Why  do  we  put  Paris-green  on  the 
plants  ?  Grasshoppers :  Observe  outside  and  feed  in  cages. 
Read  or  tell  about  grasshopper  plagues  and  their  effects. 

(LiS2.  J36>  !48.) 

Ants:  Observe  ant-hills.  Overturn  stones  and  boards, 
and  observe  the  inside  of  a  nest.  Note  numbers,  some  winged 
males  and  females,  the  whitish  cocoons  carried  away  by  the 
workers,  the  minute  white  eggs,  the  passage-ways.  Feed 
ants  bits  of  meat,  sugar,  fruit.  See  them  work.  Stories  of 
ants'  industry.  Collect  a  canful  of  ants,  cocoons,  eggs,  and 
earth,  and  start  an  ant  cage  in  the  school.  (See  Chapter  XIV.) 
Observe,  feed,  and  water.  General  structure  of  workers.* 
Compare  with  them  the  small  winged  males,  and  the  larger 
winged  females,  "queens."  Stories  of  ants'  intelligence, 
and  social  order.  (J,  132,  133,  130,  47,  58.) 

Informal  observations  on  aquatic  insects  collected  by 
pupils  and  kept  in  aquarium — wrigglers,  electric-light  bug,* 
dragon-fly  larvae,  etc.  (47,  J.)  Observe  empty  cases  of 


442  NATURE-STUDY 

cicada  on  tree  trunks.  It  is  probably  too  late  to  see  the 
emergence  of  the  adult.  Catch  and  cage  cicadas.*  Note 
wings,  eyes,  " snare  drum"  on  males.  (J,  47,  132,  133,  33,  34.) 
Note  the  shrill  noise  of  the  cicada  on  a  hot  day. 

Bring  in  walking-sticks.  Why  so  named?  Where  do 
they  live  ?  Are  they  easily  seen  ?  Place  one  on  some  twigs. 
Note  how  easily  it  escapes  notice.*  What  advantage  is  it 
to  the  insect?  How  many  legs  has  it?  Any  wings?  Note 
feelers.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  it.  It  cannot  bite  or  sting. 
Keep  some  in  a  cage  and  feed  on  fresh  oak  and  other  leaves. 
(J,  132,  136,  130,  54.) 

MISCELLANEOUS:  Collect  crayfish,  clams,  snails,  frogs, 
toads,  turtles,*  and  fish,  and  keep  them  in  aquaria  or  vivaria. 
Tree  frogs  are  interesting. 

Crayfish  * :  Note  actions  of  living  creature,  swimming, 
crawling,  pinching,  feeling  with  antennae.  Feed  bits  of 
meat,  liver,  etc.  Observe  the  jointing  of  the  body,  the 
hard  shell,  use  of  shell,  the  big  pincers,  the  jointed  legs, 
Under  back  part  of  body  note  small  blades  used  in  swim- 
ming forward.  What  is  used  in  swimming  backward? 
Where  do  the  crayfish  live?  Are  they  easily  seen?  Why? 
If  kept  well  long  enough  the  crayfish  may  shed  its  shell,—  - 
a  very  interesting  sight,  and  an  opportunity  for  a  lesson  on 
that  subject.  (B,  I,  47,  33,  34,  93.) 

Simple  informal  observation  of  the  actions  and  habits  of 
the  snail  *  and  clam.*  The  pond  snails  are  easily  kept  in 
aquaria.  Get  some  large  imported  land  snails,  Helix  poma- 
tia.  (  33>  34,  etc.  93,  I.) 

Observe  the  disappearance  of  frogs,  toads,  turtles,  earth- 
worms, gophers,  etc.  What  becomes  of  them?  Place  a 
toad  in  a  box  of  earth  outside  and  observe  what  it  does.  Dis- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   N*ATURE-STUDY         443 

cuss  hibernation.     Refer  to  the  bear's  winter  sleep.     (B, 
33,  34,   21,   47,   *7>   24.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING  :  Put  garden  in  order  after  the  summer's  neg- 
lect. Observe  the  effects  of  drought,  storms,  insects,  and 
weeds.  Make  a  collection  of  all  the  weeds  found.  Press 
and  mount  in  a  folder  with  simple  description  of  what  weeds 
are  and  do,  and  of  the  separate  plants.  Make  a  list  of 
the  insects  found  to  be  injurious,  and  the  plants  affected. 
(Weeds — 230,  222,  231,  256,  246  "  Weeds.")  (Insects:  132, 
136,148.) 

Take  up  and  exhibit  with  other  classes  at  a  school  fair 
the  products  of  the  garden — flowers  and  vegetables.  Ad- 
judge awards.  Cut  bouquets  for  the  school.  Take  up 
and  pot  some  of  the  plants  for  winter  culture.  Perhaps  the 
cotton,  is  not  quite  ripe.  Dig  up  a  plant  carefully  and  ripen 
indoors.  Collect  seeds  for  next  year,  label.  Give  away 
seeds.  Exchange  seeds.  Set  out  bulbs  for  spring  flowering. 
(221,  229,  etc.,  seed  catalogues.) 

Prepare  cuttings  of  currant,  willow,  lilac,  ivy,  woodbine 
for  next  spring  planting.  (221,  229,  232,  etc.) 

Mulch  the  strawberry  bed  and  the  bulb  bed,  also  the 
cuttings  and  seedling  trees. 

Clean  up  for  the  winter. 

GENERAL:  The  sunflower:*  Begin  early  before  all 
are  gone.  Note  the  great  size  of  the  flower  head,  its  bright 
color,  the  contrast  of  the  central  part  and  border.  Ob- 
serve sunflowers  growing.  Note  great  size,  broad  leaves, 
how,  in  general,  the  heads  turn  toward  the  south  or  the  sun, 
seen  best  in  the  youngest  buds.  Cut  some  of  the  heads  off, 


444  NATURE-STUDY 

also  some  that  have  gone  to  seed.  In  the  school-room  make 
a  study  of  the  head.  This  is  not  a  single  flower,  but  a  collec- 
tion of  hundreds  of  flowers  side  by  side.  (See  page  335  and 
adapt.)  Use  black-board  drawings  freely,  and  make  cuts 
through  the  head  as  shown  in  fig.  134.  Observe  the  tubular 
flowers  in  the  centre,  then  the  rays.  Derive  a  ray  flower 
from  a  tubular  flower  by  imagining  it  split  open  on  one  side. 
Note  the  "seeds,"  really  the  fruit.  Examine  the  head  gone 
to  seed.  Note  how  numerous  the  •" seeds"  are  and  how 
closely  packed.  Note  the  green  leaf -like  "scales"  on  the 
outside.  Have  pupils  make  diagrammatic  drawings  show- 
ing details.  (Suggest  saving  the  sunflower  heads  when  ripe 
to  hang  out  in  winter  for  the  birds.)  (K,  M,  154,  156,  158, 
etc.)  Gather  wild  sunflowers,*  asters,*  daisies,*  garden 
"single"  asters,*  zinnias,  etc.,  and  note  that  they  are  com- 
posites too.  (168,  etc.) 

Annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials:  Observe  in  the  gar- 
den how  the  annuals  die  after  flowering,  the  same  season  they 
are  sown;  how  beets,  carrots,  etc.  have  their  leaves  frozen 
but  the  roots  remain  alive;  similarly  with  perennials,  some 
are  frozen  above  ground,  others  like  shrubs,  vines,  and  trees 
persist  year  after  year  above  ground.  Take  up  carrots,* 
beets,*  cabbage,*  etc.,  and  save  some  for  planting  in  the 
spring,  for  further  study.  Discuss  the  meaning  of  fleshy 
roots,  tubers,*  and  bulbs*  to  the  plant.  They  are  store- 
houses of  food  (starch — show  it)  for  the  plant's  next  year's 
growth.  What  use  do  we  make  of  them?  Make  a  list  of 
such  storehouses  that  we  eat:  (K,  1 5 2 ,  1 56, 1 58, 1 54,  S,  R,  P.) 

Cereals,  rice  and  corn  included:  Collect  some  of  each. 
Shell  or  husk  it.  Grind  some  in  a  mortar.  Observe  the 
white  powdery  contents  of  the  kernels.  Examine  corn- 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  *NATURE-STUDY         445 

starch  and  wheat-flour.  What  do  we  raise  grains  and  corn 
for?  What  does  the  wheat  plant  or  the  corn  plant  raise  the 
kernels  for  ?  Refer  to  seed  wheat  and  seed  corn.  (P,  R,  S, 
154,  156,  213,  225,  222,  228.) 

Seed  dispersal:  Illustrations,  agents  of  dispersal.  Book 
illustrated  with  drawings,  or  charts.  (N,  K,  M,  154,  156, 
161.) 

Simple  talk  on  pollination — pollen  transfer  to  stigma; 
no  fruit  otherwise.  (K,  200,  156,  158.) 

Visit  a  swamp  *  and  observe  in  a  general  way  the  character 
of  vegetation,  absence  of  hard  woods,  perhaps  all  trees; 
abundance  of  sedges,*  grasses,  bullrushes,  cattails,*  joe-pye 
weed,*  etc.  Water-soaked  soil,  mud.  Also  visit  a  sand 
dune  *  or  very  dry  soil,  and  note  vegetation  there.  Com- 
pare with  the  other  in  character  and  abundance.  Why  the 
difference  ?  Bring  out  the  dependence  of  plants  upon  moist- 
ure and  soil  conditions.  (154,  156,  158,  V,  327,  338.) 

TREES  :  Renew  acquaintance  with  trees  learned  in  former 
years.  Add  red  oak,*  basswood,*  locust,*  sweet  gum. 
Make  study  of  character  of  each  tree.  (173,  etc.)  Take 
class  into  a  forest  when  trees  are  in  autumn  colors  or  the 
leaves  are  falling.*  Observe  the  closeness  of  the  trees,  their 
slender  growth,  the  numerous  dead  branches,  fallen  trees, 
decaying  logs  with  fungi,*  the  matted  leaf  mould,  the  black 
soil  underneath.  Dig  deeper  and  the  soil  is  less  black.  Note 
birds  and  other  animals  in  the  forest.  Observe  the  effect 
of  storms.  Try  to  identify  the  trees;  make  a  list  of  those 
seen.  Listen  to  the  sighing  or  roaring  of  the  wind,  the  creak- 
ing of  limbs,  the  calls  of  the  animals,  and  note  the  grace  of 
the  swaying  tree  tops  and  branches,  the  rustling  of  the  leaves, 
the  falling  leaves,  the  shadows  and  lights  of  the  forest.  Notice 


446  NATURE-STUDY 

the  landscape  effects  of  the  forest  at  a  distance.  Let  chil- 
dren write  a  description  of  what  they  saw  and  enjoyed  in  the 
forest.  (L,  220,  219,  222,  228,  216,  156,  158,  161.) 

Leaf  mould :  Study  its  composition  in  a  simple  way.  Plant 
some  seedlings  or  geraniums  in  leaf  mould,  and  in  pure 
sand.  Compare  growth.  Visit  a  greenhouse.  Ask  the 
gardener  where  he  gets  his  soil  for  his  potted  plants.  Why  ? 
(222,  228,  220,  219,  156,  158,  242,  229,  221.) 

FLOWERS:  Autumn  composites:*  Cultivated  sunflower,* 
wild  sunflower,*  asters,*  coneflower,*  daisy.*  Also  identify 
blazing  star,*  toad-flax.*  (M,  168,  etc.) 

WEEDS:  Visit  the  garden  early  in  the  fall,  and  note 
the  harm  done  by  weeds.  Make  a  collection  of  these 
weeds,  and  press  and  hang  them  up  in  school  for  reference. 
Learn  to  recognize  catnip,  lamb's  quarters,  quack-grass, 
foxtail  grass,  purslane,  pigweed,  and  study  the  character- 
istics of  each.  What  are  weeds  good  for?  (222,  228,  140, 
230;  268,  etc.;  231,  256,  246  "  Weeds.") 

WINTER 

ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Carnivorous  mammals — Dog,*  fox,*  wolf; 
cat,*  wild  cat,  panther,  lion,*  tiger.  Use  pictures  and  ob- 
serve cat  and  dog  for  types  of  the  others.  Study  about  the 
habits,  homes,  and  food  of  each  animal;  its  intelligence  and 
powers;  hunting  stories  and  anecdotes.  Visit  zoological 
garden. 

Study  the  structure  of  each  animal,  especially  that  of  the 
dog  and  cat  somewhat  in  detail  and  systematically.  (See 
page  73  for  method.)  Emphasize  coverings,  teeth,  and 
claws.  Bring  out  the  adaptations  to  food,  environment, 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         447 

and  mode  of  life.  Compare  the  animals  as  to  these  struct- 
ures. Let  the  children  consider  both  the  canine  and  feline 
animals  together,  and  make  their  own  grouping  of  them. 
Ask  them  why  they  put  the  dog,  fox,  and  wolf  together;  why 
they  did  not  put  the  cat  in  with  this  group.  Thus  bring  out 
both  differences  and  likenesses.  Do  not  make  the  grouping 
too  scientific,  but  let  it  be  rather  informal.  Speak  of 
the  dog's  wild  relations,  the  wild  cats.  (F,  34,  33,  32,  25, 
17,  etc.) 

BIRDS:  Interest  the  children  in  keeping  poultry,  doves, 
etc.  Perhaps  their  parents  may  be  induced  to  give  them 
ownership  rights  in  some  of  the  poultry  at  home.  Talks 
about  what  we  get  from  poultry.  How  they  should  be  cared 
for.  Show  poultry  catalogue,  Farmers'  Bulletins:  No.  41 
on  Fowls;  51,  Standard  Varieties  of  Fowls;  64,  Ducks  and 
Geese;  141,  Poultry  on  the  Farm;  177,  Squab  Raising; 
200,  Turkeys;  128,  Eggs.  (See  Gen.  Ref.  246.) 

Also  use  references:  231,  222,  228,  etc. 

Keep  children  interested  in  the  winter  birds.*  Have  them 
try  to  attract  and  feed  them.  Read  stories  about  them,  how 
to  be  kind  to  them.  Put  out  for  them  sunflower  heads, 
sheaves  of  grain,  and  crumbs.  Hang  marrow  bones  and  suet 
to  the  orchard  trees  or  near  the  windows  where  the  birds 
may  be  seen.  (Chap.  X,  109,  113,  478,  120,  H.) 

PLANTS. 

SUGAR:  Notice  sweetness  of  apples,  etc.  What  makes 
them  sweet?  Where  does  our  sugar  come  from?  Make 
study  of  sugar-cane  and  the  preparation  of  sugar.  Show 
pictures  of  the  plant,  and  the  stages  of  preparation.  (V, 
S,  T,  256,  230,  236,  geographies,  magazine  articles,  year 


448  NATURE-STUDY 

books  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.)  Refer  to 
sorghum.  What  use  do  we  make  of  it  ?  How  is  the  syrup 
made  ?  Study  the  sugar  beet.  Get  some,  press  out  the  juice, 
boil  it  down  to  sugar.  (S,  T,  V,  222,  228,  231,  230,  236,  256, 
magazine  articles,  Year-books  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  bulletins  from  State  Agricultural  Schools.) 
Refer  to  maple  syrup  and  sugar — perhaps  make  some  when 
sap  flows.  What  does  the  plant  do  with  the  sugar  in  the  sap  ? 
What  do  we  do  with  it? 

TREES:  Observe  winter  state,  recognize  those  learned 
before.  Bring  in  buds  *  and  discuss  their  winter  protection. 
(L,  173,  154,  156,  158,  164.) 

GARDENING:  Culture  of  potted  and  window-box  plants. 
(235,  221,  229,  etc.)  Select  plants  from  list  page  297.  Grow 
bulbs — tulip,  daffodil,  hyacinth.  Lessons  in  potting.  Later, 
start  annuals  for  transplanting — list  page  295.  (221,  229, 
etc.)  Distribute  seeds  of  selected  plants  for  competitive  pot 
culture  by  the  pupils  at  home,  each  child  to  have  full  re- 
sponsibility for  the  success  of  the  culture.  Give  written  di- 
rections for  sowing,  soil,  watering,  etc.  Exhibit  condition 
of  plants  at  school  at  the  close  of  spring  term,  and  if 
still  in  flower,  again  at  the  beginning  of  next  fall.  Award 
prize. 

Make  experimental  cultures  of  window  plants  in  sand,  clay, 
loam,  and  mixtures,  giving  same  amounts  of  water  and 
same  temperatures,  using  the  same  kind  of  plant  (bean)  of 
about  the  same  size.  Better,  plant  two  or  three  plants  in 
each  kind  of  soil,  as  some  may  perish  for  unforeseen  rea- 
sons. This  work  should  teach  something  of  the  relation 
of  the  plant  to  the  character  of  the  soil.  (Q,  222,  228,  230, 
231,  etc.) 


A   GRADED    COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         449 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:  Keep  a  calendar  or  illustrated  booklet  of  the  re- 
turning birds.  Observe  and  identify  new  ones.  Swifts  * 
(distinguish  from  swallows),  the  different  kinds  of  wood- 
peckers,* brown  thrush,  wood  thrush,*  redwinged  black- 
bird,* summer  yellow-bird,*  kingfisher,  whip-poor-will. 
Study  the  main  points  of  structure  necessary  for  identifica- 
tion, peculiar  habits,  adaptations  of  feet,*  bills,*  etc.,  and  the 
good  or  harm  done  by  the  birds.  (H,  95,  etc.,  107,  etc.) 

Emphasize  the  beauty,  song,  the  need  of  protection.  Have 
children  make  and  put  up  houses  or  boxes  for  wrens,  blue- 
birds, and  martins.  Observe  Bird  Day.  Read  Longfel- 
low's " Birds  of  Killingworth."  Refer  to  protective  laws,  their 
purpose.  Develop  a  desire  to  obey  them.  (Chap.  X,  113, 
108,  109,  117,  478.) 

Make  economic  studies  of  swallows,  robins,  woodpeckers 
(different  kinds),  blackbird,  crow,  English  sparrow,  hawks 
(different  kinds).  Observe  as  far  as  possible  the  food  of 
these  birds,  read  about  them,  conclude  as  to  their  useful- 
ness or  harmfulness.  Which  should  be  protected?  (120, 
246  "  Common  Birds;  "  Agricultural  Year-books;  95,  etc., 
115,  H.) 

INSECTS:  Observe  return  of  insect  life.  Note  bees  and 
flies  in  the  earliest  flowers.  Observe  them  pollinating  in 
the  orchard.  Suppose  there  were  no  insects  here,  could  we 
raise  fruit?  (200,  156,  158,  154;  238,  page  289.) 

Observe  the  cutworms  in  the  school-garden  and  at  home. 
Look  up  remedies.  (136,  132,  229.)  Why  is  it  a  good 
thing  to  have  the  robins  and  toads  in  the  garden?  What 
are  cutworms?  (132,  136,  etc.)  (Toad:  24,  246 — "The 


450  NATURE-STUDY 

Usefulness   of  the  Toad.")     (Birds   in   the   Garden:    246, 
"Common   Birds;"  120,   etc.) 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL  :  Brief  review  of  plant  organs  *  as  in  Year  III, 
Spring.  Some  simple  experiments  on  absorption  by  roots. 
(222,  231, 196, 165.)  Simple  study  of  the  relation  of  plants  to 
light,  at  least  the  necessity  of  light  for  life.  Do  some  simple 
experiments  in  raising  seedlings  *  in  and  away  from  the 
light,  other  conditions  being  the  same.  Note  not  only  the 
bleaching,  but  the  spindling  growth  and  final  death.  Why 
do  we  place  the  school-room  plants  in  the  windows?  (222, 
228,  154,  156,  158,  196,  165.)  Note  growth  of  seedlings 
toward  the  light,*  the  one-sided  growth  of  plants  not  turned 
in  window.  Some  flower  plans.*  Using  wild  flowers, 
illustrate  and  discuss  polypetalous,  tubular,  and  irregular 
flowers — these  terms  need  not  be  used.  The  idea  is  to  be- 
gin with  a  simple  plan,  and  then  to  note  the  modifications 
as  shown  in  the  other  types.  Make  comparisons  and  trace 
corresponding  parts.  Call  attention  to  the  beauty,  sym- 
metry, variety,  color  shadings,  and  contrasts,  fragrance, 
etc.  (152,  190,  193,  154,  158,  156.) 

TREES:  Poplar,  choke-cherry,*  hawthorn,*  sumach.* 
(173,  etc.) 

Trees  in  blossom* — not  only  the  fruit  trees  (observe 
beauty),  but  also  the  flowers  of  boxelder,*  maples,  cotton- 
wood,*  oaks,  etc.  Examine  them  in  a  general  way.  Learn 
what  a  catkin  is.  Observe  abundance  of  pollen  in  boxelder 
and  cottonwood  flowers.  Shake  them  when  ripe,  and  note 
cloud  of  pollen.  Also  examine  young  cones  and  staminate 
clusters  of  conifers.  (173,  etc.,  156,  154,  etc.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  'NATURE-STUDY         451 

FLOWERS:  Identify  and  study  characteristic  points  of 
structure,  habitat,  and  beauty  of  bellwort,*  wild  phlox,*  vetch, 
puccoon,*  strawberry,*  shepherd's  purse.  (M,  168,  etc.) 

GARDENING  AND  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE:  (Q,  221, 
etc.)  Prepare  cold-frame — simple  one.  Transplant  the 
flowers  started  indoors,  or  sow  others.  Read  up  about 
care.  (221,  229,  etc.) 

Plan  the  class  garden.  If  plenty  of  ground,  give  each  child 
a  plot.  (240,  234,  481  for  plans.)  (See  Chapter  XVI.)  Make 
a  plan  on  paper  for  the  whole  school,  for  the  class  and  for 
each  plot.  Select  the  seeds  to  be  sown.  Plan  where  they 
are  to  go  in  the  beds.  Take  into  account  the  height  of  the 
plant  and  the  light  requirements — placing  the  taller  on  the 
side  to  the  north.  The  boys  of  this  grade  can  spade  their 
own  plots,  and  the  girls  assist  in  the  raking  and  finishing. 
Stake  out  the  class-garden,  and  the  individual  or  group 
beds.  If  fertilizer  is  necessary,  read  up  (222,  228,  231,  221, 
etc.)  and  apply  as  directed. 

Select  seeds  from  list,  page  295.  Let  this  class  make  a 
special  study  of  the  life-cycle  of  the  corn  plant.  Note  im- 
portant stages,  cultivate  properly. 

Give  lessons  in  pricking  out,  transplanting,  sowing,  water- 
ing, weeding,  etc.  (221,  229,  etc.)  Show  how  to  cultivate. 
Study  weeds  encountered.  (See  above.)  Encourage  home 
gardening.  Perhaps  the  parents  will  give  the  children  little 
plots  of  their  own  to  work,  or  allow  them  to  share  the  profits 
of  the  family  garden. 

Remove  the  mulch  from  the  beds  covered  the  previous 
fall.  Care  for  the  young  oak,  walnuts,  maples,  apple  trees, 
etc.,  planted  previous  years.  Perhaps  they  need  transplant- 
ing to  better  and  permanent  places.  (232,  221,  240.) 


452  NATURE-STUDY 

Transplant  the  cuttings  of  currants,  willows,  lilac,  ivy  or 
woodbine  made  the  previous  fall.  Plant  on  Arbor  Day  in 
appropriate  places.  Care  for  them.  (221,  232,  220.) 

Apply  the  lessons  on  growth  conditions  learned  in  the  in- 
door study — above. 

Plant  turnips,  carrots,  beets,  cabbage,  potato,  and  onion, 
and  note  their  development  the  second  year.  What  be- 
comes of  the  substance  of  the  roots,  bulbs,  tubers,  and  heads  ? 
(256,  252,  258,  254,  231.) 

Exhibit  the  plants  grown  at  home  from  the  seed. 

Clean  up  the  school  playground  and  lawn.  Patch  up 
broken  fences.  Remove  dead  vines  and  branches.  En- 
courage cleaning  the  backyard  at  home,  raking  the  front 
lawn,  keeping  it  clipped,  watering  it,  planting  flowers.  Arouse 
a  pride  in  the  beauty  of  the  school-grounds,  the  boulevards 
and  parks.  Teach  children  to  respect  the  efforts  of  people 
to  improve  their  city,  and  not  to  tresspass,  injure  trees,  etc. 

Add  to  the  wild  flower  garden. 

FIFTH  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  The  greater  maturity  of  the  child- 
ren in  this  grade  is  shown  in  their  greater  ability  to  reason 
out  relations,  adaptations,  comparisons,  and  generaliza- 
tions, and  to  make  better  application  of  their  knowledge. 
They  have  a  greater  interest  in  principles,  and  see  their  bear- 
ing better.  They  have  greater  interest  in  inanimate  nature  and 
its  forces,  in  inventions,  and  commercial  values.  Type 
studies  can  be  used  more  and  more,  and  larger  group  relations 
can  be  appreciated.  Conditions  of  plant  and  animal  life, 
and  our  own  dependence  on  the  natural  environment  is  more 
apparent  to  them. 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         453 

In  general,  the  work  is  largely  correlated  with  geography 
and  manual  training,  and  still  largely  used  as  the  basis  for 
other  studies.  Study  selected  types  to  represent  large  classes. 
Study  groups  to  show  interrelations.  Classify  animals  and 
plants,  to  show  their  relationships.  Do  not  neglect  the 
aesthetic  and  altruistic  side  of  nature-study. 

Suggestions  for  correlated  art  study — see  page  57.  The  asterisk  indicates 
subjects  for  drawing,  painting,  etc.  Numbers  indicate  general  reference 
list,  p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

EARTH-STUDY:  Review  minerals  studied  last  year.  Add 
to  mineral  collection  and  study  metal  ores,  metals,  salts, 
etc.  (343,  263,  etc.) 

Intensive  study  of  coal  and  iron.  Localities,  under  what 
conditions,  mining  methods,  reduction  of  iron  (simple) ;  uses 
of  coal  and  iron  in  industries.  (For  coal — 348,  339,  263, 
320,  geographies.  For  iron— 339,  263,  320,  322,  317.) 

Experiment  with  plaster  of  Paris,  mortar  and  cement, 
and  artificial  stone  to  give  some  idea  of  rock  formation,  and 
also  to  understand  something  of  these  things  themselves. 
(263,  etc.,  317,  318.) 

Rock  formation:  Visit  brook  or  river  for  sand  or  mud 
deposits.  Note  the  stratification,  the  imbedded  leaves, 
sticks,  shells,  footprints  of  birds,  etc.  Suppose  this  were  to 
harden.  Visit  a  quarry  or  rock  cliff.  Notice  layers  and 
finer  stratification,  and  fossils.*  Connect  with  experiments 
on  artificial  stone  and  the  deposits  in  the  brook.  (327,  336, 

324,  339-) 

Coral:*  Brief  study  of  the  polyp,  especially  its  limy  skel- 
eton. Observe  specimens  of  coral.  (33,  34,  etc.)  Test 
with  muriatic  acid. 


454  NATURE-STUDY 

Limestone  and  marble:  Connect  with  the  last.  Origin, 
nature.  Test  with  acid.  Uses  of  limestone.  Show  spec- 
imens with  fossil  coral.  What  other  creatures  help  to  make 
limestone?  (324,  326,  327,  317,  318,  339,  343.) 

Marble:  Test  with  acid.  Relation  to  limestone.  Crys- 
talline. Visit  a  marble-cutter's  shop.  Observe  varieties  of 
marble.  Make  a  collection,  polish.  Uses  of  limestone — 
refer  also  to  sculpture.  (324,  326,  327,  318,  317,  339,  343.) 

WEATHER:  Rainfall  record.  Relation  of  plants  to  rain- 
fall. (327,  326,  328,  158,  156,  geographies.)  Typical 
climatic  regions  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the  geography. 
(327,  328,  etc.)  Cause  of  winds  (see  physics  below).  (251, 
257,  326.)  Relation  between  the  wind  and  the  weather- 
simple.  (327,  326,  328,  etc.)  Effects  of  frost  on  vegeta- 
tion and  animals.  (Winter  state  of  plants,  hibernation,  and 
migration  of  animals.)  (156,  152,  158,  33,  34,  17.)  Frost 
effects  on  water  in  air,  on  soil,  on  rocks.  (327,  326,  328, 
etc.) 

PHYSICS:  Three  forms  of  matter  illustrated  by  experi- 
ments on  water,  etc.  Distillation,  evaporation,  condensa- 
tion. Experiments  *  and  applications.  Conduction  of  heat 
— experiments,*  applications.  Convection  of  air.* 

Apply  to, heating,  ventilation,  land  and  sea  winds.  (These 
lessons  must  be  illustrated  by  experiments — see  Chapter  V. 
Be  sure  to  make  the  application.)  (251,  250,  259,  257,  340, 

449>  3l8-) 

Inventions:  Observe  men  at  work  with  tools.  Visit  a 
factory,  and  note  machinery.  Visit  a  place  where  derricks, 
etc.,  are  used  for  moving  heavy  weights.  Compare  primitive 
man  with  the  present  in  regard  to  tools,  machines,  and 
other  inventions.  Refer  to  the  conveniences  and  advantages 


A   GRADED    COURSE   OF   MATURE-STUDY         455 

derived  from  the  use  of  machines  and  tools.  Study  in  a 
simple  way,  more  for  their  practical  use,  some  simple 
machines.*  Crowbar,  lever,  the  incline,  screw  (book-press), 
windlass,  pulley.  Point  out  the  advantages  gained  by  means 
of  each.  (For  references,  see  the  last,  also  289,  288,  292.) 

Discuss  in  a  similar  way,  applying  the  principles  already 
learned:  lamps,*  chimneys,*  stoves,*  fireplaces,  kites,  wind- 
mills,* sails,*  water-wheels,*  clocks.*  Illustrate  each  by 
observation  of  the  actual  object  or  experiment.  Note  the 
natural  agencies  taken  advantage  of.  Show  how  man  has 
learned  to  make  these  inanimate  forces  help  him,  just  as  he 
has  domesticated  animals  for  his  service.  (References  as 
the  last.) 

Metals:  Identify  common  metals,  test  their  useful  prop- 
erties. Note  applications.  Discuss  why  a  particular  metal 
and  not  some  other  is  used  for  special  purposes.  Espe- 
cially emphasize  the  use  of  iron. 

Visit  a  blacksmith's  shop.*     (263,  etc.,  315,  317,  323.) 

Magnet  :*  Experiments  with  attraction.  Make  magnets. 
Uses.  Magnetic  compass.  Make  one.  (250,  251,  259,  318, 
340,  449.) 

CHEMISTRY:  Experiments  to  show  in  a  simple  way  the 
process  of  combustion.  Study  charcoal  (carbon).  Make 
oxygen  gas.  Show  power  to  support  combustion.  Burn 
charcoal  in  oxygen.  Show  with  lime-water  the  presence 
of  CO2.  Observe  the  heat  produced  by  the  combustion. 
Prove  the  formation  of  CO  2  by  burning  a  candle.  Illustrate 
the  production  of  heat  by  decay.  Decay,  a  process  of  burn- 
ing. Apply  to  hot-bed.  (262,  263,  270,  272,  317,  317.) 
Simple  experiments  to  show  nature  of  acid — muriatic,  vinegar, 
lemon;  of  alkali — lye,  soap,  soda.  (274,  262,  263,  270,  272, 


4$6  NATURE-STUDY 

317,  318.)     Dyes  and  dyeing.     References  as  the  last  and 


ASTRONOMY:  Simple  study  of  the  solar  system,  the  earth 
in  space,  motions,  shape.  Use  models,  pictures  and  dia- 
grams, geographies.  (390,  402,  400,  etc.,  and  primary  refer- 
ence list  Y.) 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:  Starchy  foods,  list.  Effects 
of  cold  and  hot  water  on  starch.  Why  do  we  cook  starchy 
foods?  (303,  304,  274.) 

Simple  study  of  the  relation,  structure,  and  action  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Use  charts,  pictures,  dissectible  charts, 
and,  better  still,  models.  Make  very  simple.  Show  that 
the  food  is  broken  up  fine  and  dissolved.  What  becomes  of 
it  ?  What  is  blood  for  ?  Blood  is  the  food  solution.  Simple 
talk  on  the  flow  of  the  blood  to  all  parts,  feeding  the  muscles 
after  they  have  worked.  Alcohol  in  relation  to  digestion. 
Make  simple  and  sane.  Discuss  effects  of  smoking.  Create 
sentiment  against  alcohol  and  smoking.  (381  a,  368a,  381, 
372>  379>  382.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

INSECTS:  Intensive  study  of  the  bee:*  A  hive  in  charge 
of  this  class  at  the  school  would  be  excellent.  Get  an  ob- 
servation hive.  (3,  47.)  Watch  bees  in  the  field  at  work. 
See  them  returning  to  the  hive.  Note  in  the  observation 
hive  what  they  do  with  their  burden.  Note  the  honey  and 
brood  cells.  Make  out,  if  possible,  the  queen,  drones,  and 
workers.  Tell  or  read  about  the  social  life  of  the  hive. 
The  intelligence  of  the  bee.  The  work  of  the  queen. 
The  swarming.  Hiving  a  swarm.  Construction  of  hive. 
The  life-cycle  of  a  bee.  Take  out  brood  comb  and  ex- 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         457 

amine  the  larvae  in  different  stages.  (The  same  thing 
may  be  seen  in  the  open  nest  of  the  polistes  wasp.)  Food 
plants  of  the  bees — list.  What  is  basswood  or  clover  honey  ? 
Bee-keeping.  The  profit  in  it.  The  pleasure  in  it.  En- 
courage keeping  of  bees.  Care  of  bees,  summer  and  winter. 
(i44,  i45>  I29>  I26>  i3°>  48i,  i33>  J47>  246  "Bee-keeping.") 
Read  about  hunting  wild  bees — Burroughs' "  Bees  and  Birds." 
Usefulness  of  bees  in  pollinating  fruit  trees,  etc.  (238  page 
289,  200,  207,  215,  156.) 

Compare  the  wasp*  with  the  bee  as  to  structure  and 
habits:  Note  membranous  wings  of  both,  hooked  together. 
General  similarity  of  shape,  differences.  Both  sting.  Hold 
a  worker  wasp  with  pincers  and  observe  sting  thrust  out. 
Remedy  for  stings.  Wasp  nest.*  First  paper-maker.  Bring 
in  nests  in  the  fall  after  the  cold  weather  has  killed  the  wasps. 
Examine  comb,  compare  with  bee's.  Usefulness  of  wasps. 
Compare  the  bumblebee*  with  wasp  and  bee.  Cage  some 
and  feed  on  sweetened  water.  Observe  in  the  clover  fields. 
Use  ?  Similarly  compare  the  mud  wasp  *  of  the  attics  and 
lofts  with  the  bee.  Note  interesting  mud  nest.*  Break 
open  and  examine  young  larvae.  Note  cells  partly  filled 
with  food.  What  is  it?  Are  they  dead?  Uses  of  wasps. 
In  what  respects  are  all  these  insects  alike  ?  They  are  called 
the  membrane-winged  group.  Why?  (143,  146,  145,  144, 
136,  132,  126,  15,  47,  33,  34.) 

House-fly:*  Observe  structure,  number  of  wings,  the 
eyes,  legs,  body,  tongue ;  eating,  running,  cleaning  wings,  flying, 
running  on  the  ceiling  or  window.  Where  are  the  flies  most 
abundant  ?  Leave  a  bone  with  some  meat  exposed  in  such 
a  place.  Observe  the  flies  there.  Examine  the  bone  for 
eggs,  and  later  for  larvae,  "maggots."  Place  a  rather  old 


458  NATURE-STUDY 

cap  of  mushroom  under  a  bell-glass  and  examine  in  a  few 
days  for  decay.  Note  great  number  of  maggots  in  the  mass. 
Later,  these  may  develop  into  a  kind  of  fly.  Discuss  the 
metamorphism  of  the  maggot.  Why  are  flies  objection- 
able ?  How  do  we  protect  ourselves  ?  Flies  as  carriers  of 
disease.  How?  There  are  many  kinds  of  flies.  (33,  34, 
47,  143,  136,  148.) 

Comparative  study  of  the  grasshoppers,*  crickets,  and 
green  grasshoppers.*  Study  essentials  and  compare  and 
classify.  Refer  to  injury  done  by  grasshoppers.  Review  life 
history.  (References  as  the  last.) 

Observe  plant  lice,  squash-bugs,  potato  beetle,  rose  beetles, 
tent  caterpillars,  and  note  the  harm  done  by  each.  Destroy 
the  nests  of  the  tent  caterpillar.  On  what  kinds  of  trees 
are  they  chiefly  found?  (47,  93.)  Make  a  collection  of 
pond  insects  and  other  creatures  for  the  aquarium.  Pro- 
tective coloration  of  green  grasshoppers,  locusts,  bark  colored 
moths.  (132,  136,  129,  47,  54,  33,  etc.) 

SALAMANDERS  AND  SNAKES:  Bring  in  spotted  salaman- 
ders,* newts,  garter  snakes,  and  keep  them  in  appropriate 
cages.  Feed  them.  Observe  actions  and  general  appear- 
ance. Salamanders  are  not  lizards.  Why?  They  are 
harmless.  Distinguish  amphibians  and  reptiles.  Study 
life  history  of  salamander  and  snake.  Make  brief  study  of 
rattlesnake.  Where  is  the  poison  ?  Where  are  these  snakes 
found?  What  is  the  rattle  for?  (33,  34,  17,  35,  26.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING:  Put  garden  in  order  after  the  summer. 
Observe  the  growth  of  the  biennials  *  set  out  last  spring. 
Collect  seeds.  Put  in  labelled  packages.  Give  away  and 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         459 

exchange  seed.  Observe  injurious  insects  and  weeds.  Har- 
vest the  corn  *  planted  last  spring.  Use  it  in  study  of  the 
life  history  of  the  plant.  Husk  the  corn  later.  Have  simple 
judging  of  the  best  ears  (  223,  239,  230,  246.) 

Exhibit  flowers  raised  in  the  garden.  Cut  for  bouquets 
daily.* 

Lessons  in  pruning — vines  and  shrubs.  (229,  240,  232, 
221.) 

Set  out  bulbs  for  spring.  Mulching  for  winter.  (221, 
229.)  Take  up  and  pot  plants  desired  for  further  use  in- 
doors. Clean  up  for  winter. 

Plant  wild  fall  perennials — sunflowers,  goldenrods,  asters. 

GENERAL:  Observe  more  closely  the  pollination  by  in- 
sects in  flowers  of  the  pumpkin,  sweet  pea,  sunflower.  (152, 
158,  156,  216,  200,  209.) 

How  plants  protect  themselves:  Observe  and  test  the 
prickles  on  the  thistle,*  rose,  gooseberry,  raspberry;  the 
thorns  on  the  locust  *  and  the  hawthorn;  the  stinging  hairs 
of  the  nettle;  the  sticky,  bitter  hulls  of  unripe  walnuts  and 
butternuts.  What  enemies  might  harm  them  ?  Find  other  ex- 
amples of  self-protection.  (156,  152, 154,  158, 161,  193,  etc.) 

CEREALS:  The  corn  plant*  and  the  grains  as  flowering 
plants.  Belated  corn  plants  may  still  be  found  in  flower 
early  in  the  school  year;  else  black-board  drawings  must  be 
used  to  show  the  nature  of  the  tassel,  ear,*  silk,  and  kernel. 
Note  the  jointed  stem,  the  slender  sheathing  leaves.  Uses 
made  of  the  corn  plant. 

In  a  similar  way  treat  the  grains.*  Study  the  flower  of 
the  wheat  by  means  of  drawings,  supplementing  as  much  as 
possible  with  heads.  Note  that  each  kernel  has  its  own  husk 
or  chaff.  Compare  the  other  grains  with  wheat.  Compare 


460  NATURE-STUDY 

with  grasses.  Note  hollow  stems,  joints,  leaves.  Grains 
are  a  kind  of  grass.  Some  timothy,*  wild  rye,*  quack-grass,* 
or  other  grass  may  still  be  found  in  flower.  Make  a  general 
study  of  the  flowers,  noting  pendulous  anthers  and  feathery 
styles.  Note  the  hollow  stems,  the  joints,  and  sheathing 
leaves.  There  are  very  many  kinds  of  grasses.  The  grains 
are  cultivated  grasses.  Corn  is  also  a  grass.  Refer  to  grass 
as  fodder.  (References  on  grasses  and  grains:  213,  230,  154, 
156,  159,  152,  193,  161.) 

The  wheat  crop:  Cultivation,  harvesting,  threshing, 
milling,  commerce,  wheat  regions.  Importance  to  the  world. 
Dependence  of  the  cities  upon  the  farmer.  (225,  227,  236, 
313,  316,  222,  228,  320,  geographies.) 

TREES  :  Distinguish  *  red,  white,  bur-oak,  and  mountain 
ash  *  (173,  etc.) 

The  orchard  * :  What  kind  of  trees  are  in  it  ?  Which  is 
the  most  important?  Care  of  orchard.  Picking  and  ship- 
ping fruit.  (238,  232,  246.) 

How  the  forest  *  benefits  man :  Make  simple.  Lumber, 
fuel,  fruit,  nuts,  game,  wind-breaks,  holding  back  the  rain- 
water, protecting  the  soil.  What  enemies  has  the  forest? 
The  lumberman,  the  farmer,  fires,  wind-storms,  insects. 
Former  extent  of  woods  in  the  vicinity.  What  has  become 
of  them?  Scarcity  of  wood  for  fuel  and  lumber.  Neces- 
sity of  preventing  waste  and  of  reforesting.  Very  briefly 
tell  how  forests  may  be  planted  and  preserved  (220,  219,  222, 
227.)  Distribution  of  forests,  prairies,  and  plains  in  the 
United  States.  Character  of  vegetation  in  each.  Reasons 
for  this  vegetation.  Distribution  of  the  conifers  and  hard- 
woods. Bring  out  relation  of  trees  to  climate,  especially 
moisture.  (Geographies,  327,  475^  475^  220,  219.) 


A  GRADED  COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY    461 

FLOWERS  :  Review  briefly  sunflower  as  composite.*  Ob- 
serve wild  composites  like  it.  Study  thistle  *  as  another 
type  of  composite.  (152,  156,  159,  154,  197,  193.) 

Identify  white  and  red  clover*  (note  bees,  bumblebees, 
and  butterflies  in  them),  prairie  clover,*  sweet  clover  (bees), 
monkey  flower,*  nettle,  cocklebur.*  (168,  etc.,  197,  200, 
209,  215.) 

WINTER 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Large  game:*  Hunting  stories.  (Appro- 
priate in  the  open  season).  Wapiti  (elk),  moose  deer* 
(white  tailed).  From  pictures  or  in  zoological  gardens  ob- 
serve general  appearance,  covering,  antlers,  grace,  fleetness, 
etc.  Stories  about  habits.  Food.  How  the  antlers  are  shed 
and  grow  again.  Examine  mounted  antlers.  How  hunted. 
Where  found  now.  Why  so  few  as  compared  with  for- 
merly. Game  laws.  Why?  Read  Warner's  "Hunting  of 
the  Deer."  Also  read  "The  Hunt,"  in  Scott's  "Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  and  Long's  "Following  the  Deer."  (25,  27, 

17,  20,  31,  28,  61,  63,  62,  72.) 

Comparative  study  of  the  ruminants :  Cow  *  as  type. 
General  characteristics  of  structure:  Cloven  hoofs,  horns, 
etc.  The  habit  of  chewing  the  cud.  Why?  Drawing  of 
multiple  stomach  on  board.  Describe  its  use.  Food  of 
the  cow.  How  does  a  cow  eat  grass?  Examine  the  front 
part  of  upper  jaw.  Has  the  cow  teeth  there?  (33,  34,  15, 

1 8,  20.)     Study  (in  geography)  the  cattle  industry,  the  meat 
preservation   and   shipment,   the   leather  and   the  shoe  in- 
dustries.    Visit  establishments  to  see  these  things.     How  a 
shoe  is  made.     (312,  etc.,  320,  323,  etc.,  geographies.)     Other 
cud-chewers  or  horned  animals:    Study  general  character- 


462  NATURE-STUDY 

istics  of  structure  and  habits  of  each,  habitat,  food,  uses, 
etc.  The  bison* — cow-like;  nearly  extinct;  why?  Where 
now  ?  How  hunted.  Sheep  *  and  (Angora)  goat  * — herds, 
uses.  Note  hoofs  and  cud-chewing.  Brief  study  of  the  wool 
industry.  Refer  to  deer  and  moose  as  belonging  with  the 
cud-chewers,  and  study  here  if  not  taken  up  before.  Ante- 
lopes; treat  as  the  others.  The  camel.*  Why  studied  in 
this  group?  General  appearance.  Stories  about  its  use 
in  the  desert.  Ability  to  endure  thirst  and  long  marches. 
(17,  25,  27,  20,  31,  28,  63,  62,  61,  72.) 

BIRDS:*  Observe  and  attract  to  the  homes  by  feeding. 
(113,  109;  478.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING  :  Competitive  culture  of  geranium,  coleus,  or 
begonia  slip  at  home.  Start  these  from  slips  in  school. 
When  rooted  well,  distribute.  (154,  152,  229,  221.)  Care 
of  the  window  plants.*  Select  from  list,  page  297.  (235, 
229.)  Some  experimental  culture  *  with  soils  of  different  fer- 
tility. Use  of  manure,  and  commercial  fertilizer  illustrated. 

(229,  221,  235,  222.) 

GENERAL:  Test  starch  with  iodine.  Test  potato,  turnip, 
apple,  corn,  and  wheat  with  iodine.  Sources  of  our  starch. 
Why  the  plants  make  the  starch,  and  put  it  in  these  tubers, 
roots,  and  seeds.  (190,  193,  152,  156,  etc.) 

CONIFERS:*  Observe  outdoors  and  recall  names.  Make 
a  general  comparative  study:  general  conical  form,  hori- 
zontal branches,  needles,*  cones,*  resin.  Why  called  ever- 
greens ?  How  about  the  tamarack  ?  Do  the  needles  never 
fall?  Look  on  the  ground  under  the  trees.  Read  about 
the  shedding  of  the  needles.  Why  called  conifers  ?  Collect 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         463 

cones  and  needles  of  different  kinds  and  compare.  With 
the  map  show  distribution  of  the  conifers  in  the  United 
States.  Where  are  the  white  pines,  spruce,  balsam  firs,  etc. 
In  what  kind  of  places  are  the  tamaracks  found  ?  What 
are  the  different  kinds  used  for?  (173,  etc.,  219,  220.) 

WOOD  STUDY:  In  connection  with  manual  training. 
Pine,  cedar,  oak,  basswood,  cherry,  maple,  butternut,  hickory, 
birch,  poplar,  etc.  Study  the  grain,  color,  hardness,  tough- 
ness, elasticity,  etc.,  of  each  kind.  Visit  a  furniture  shop 
and  collect  pieces  of  different  sorts.  In  the  shop  trim  to 
uniform  size,  sandpaper,  and  varnish,  label  and  hang  up  in 
the  shop  or  school-room.  Refer  to  the  uses  made  of  each 
kind,  and  tell  what  particular  quality  makes  it  desirable  for 
certain  purposes.  What  kinds  are  used  in  building  houses  ? 
In  furniture  making?  In  handles,  wheels?  For  the  masts 
of  ships?  For  fuel?  For  posts,  and  ties,  etc.?  Try  to 
identify  in  common  articles,  furniture,  etc.  (219,  220,  218; 
173,  etc.;  314.) 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MAMMALS:  What  is  a  whale— a  fish? 
What  is  a  bat?  Study  bat,*  mole,*  seal,  whale,  as  mam- 
mals. Discuss  their  odd  habits  and  peculiar  shapes.  Show 
how  each  peculiarity  is  an  adaptation  to  the  mode  of  life, 
the  food,  or  the  place  where  the  animal  lives.  Perhaps  bats 
may  be  brought  in,  and  moles  are  easily  caught  in  traps. 
Observe  the  injury  done  by  moles.  Read  about  the  seal 
"fishery."  Show  pictures  of  the  herds  on  the  Alaskan 
islands.  Methods  of  killing.  Wastefulness  and  cruelty  in 
the  killing.  Efforts  of  the  United  States  to  protect.  Some- 
thing about  the  preparation  of  the  sealskins.  What  is  un- 


464  NATURE-STUDY 

plucked  seal?  Read  about  the  whale  "fishery."  Where 
are  the  whales  caught  ?  What  methods  used  ?  Why  do  we 
catch  whales — what  do  we  get  from  them?  Treatment  of 
the  blubber,  etc.  (General:  33,  34,  15,  17,  25,  26,  20,  30.) 
For  seals  and  whales  see  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  reports.) 

BIRDS:*  Mourning  dove,  cuckoo,  starling,  yellow-headed 
blackbird,  cowbird,  chipping-sparrow.  More  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  habit,  food,  structure,  coloration,  adapta- 
tions, uses  or  injury  of  each  than  in  previous  grades.  Ob- 
serve the  returning  birds.  On  field  trips  note  the  songs 
and  calls  and  try  to  recognize  birds  by  these.  Try  to  imitate. 
Note  where  birds  of  different  kinds  congregate.  Assign 
special  birds  easily  observed  to  individuals  or  groups  of  chil- 
dren, for  special  observation  through  the  spring.  Keep  a 
record  of  observations,  and  write  up  in  illustrated  essay. 
Make  rustic  or  ornamental  bird  houses  *  and  put  up.  Let 
the  class  join  in  planning  and  making  a  colony  house  for 
martins,  and  set  it  up  on  the  school  or  a  pole  in  the  school- 
yard. Protect  the  birds.  Do  not  steal  the  eggs.  What 
do  the  game  laws  say  about  non-game  birds  ?  What  do  the 
signs  in  the  parks  say  about  harming  birds?  Birds  should 
be  allowed  to  live  so  that  all  may  enjoy  them.  (113,  108, 
102,  117.)  Observe  Bird  Day.  (107.) 

Comparative  study  and  classification  of  Scratching  Birds 
—hen,*  turkey,*  Guinea  fowl,  peacock,*  bobwhite,*  ruffed- 
grouse,  prairie  hen.  Brief  study  of  the  game  birds  in  this 
list.  Compare  habits,  food,  feet,*  scratching,  bills,  etc. 
Refer  to  domestication.  Value.  (60,  246  poultry  bulletins, 
99,  479,  61.)  Observe  and  list  the  birds  in  an  orchard,  in  a 
garden,  in  a  village,  in  a  city  park,  in  the  fields  and  pastures, 
in  a  swamp,  on  the  water,  (116,  118,  100,  etc.  See  page  85.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         465 

INSECTS:  Care  and  observation  of  school  beehive.  (47, 
133,  246  "  Bee-keeping.") 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL  :  Germination  studies.*  The  seeds,*  parts,  uses. 
Seedling,*  observe  in  glass  germinator  and  in  soil.  Note 
how  different  kinds  get  out  of  the  shell.*  Plant  peas,  beans, 
corn,  grain,  radish,  flax,  onion,  sunflower,  squash,  acorn, 
walnut,  plum  or  peach  pit.  Note  what  happens  to  the  seed 
leaves  of  the  bean  as  the  seedling  develops.*  Cut  them 
from  a  young  bean  seedling.  Observe  effect.  Infer  their 
use.  Show  starch  in  seed-leaves  with  iodine  test.  They  are 
stores  of  food  for  the  young  plant.  Note  the  delicate  root 
hairs  on  the  roots  of  the  seedlings  in  the  glass  germinators.* 
These  are  the  sucking  hairs  for  drawing  up  the  moisture 
and  solutions  from  the  soil.  (190,  193,201,  154,  152,  157, 
222,  etc.) 

TREES  :*  Simple  classification :  The  oaks,  willows,  cotton- 
wood,  poplar,  hard-maple,  soft-maple,  boxelder,  and  birch. 
Do  this  by  comparison  of  leaves,*  flower,*  and  fruit.*  Ob- 
serve the  flowers  of  these  trees.  Note  the  catkins,*  and 
the  abundant  pollen  that  easily  shakes  out  in  clouds  when 
ripe.  Discuss  wind  pollination.  Refer  to  the  pollination 
of  corn,  grasses,  and  grains.  Have  children  observe  these 
later.  (173,  etc.;  193,  154,  156,  i59>  152-) 

Visit  an  orchard  in  flower.*  Note  the  abundance  of  bees 
and  other  insects.  What  are  they  getting?  Observe  how 
they  are  dusted  with  pollen.  Discuss  how  the  pollen  is 
brushed  against  the  stigma.  The  importance  of  bees  in  an 
orchard.  Why  do  many  fruit  raisers  keep  bees  ?  (200,  207, 
238  page  289.) 


466  NATURE-STUDY 

FLOWERS:*  Wild-ginger,  yellow  vetch,  honey-suckle,  ar- 
butus, water-leaf,  false  Solomon's  seal,  red  clover.  Mean- 
ing of  color,  fragrance,  shapes,  nectar  in  the  flower, — de- 
vices to  attract  insects  to  bring  about  pollination.  (200,  207, 
156,  154,  158,  161.) 

WEEDS:  In  the  lawn:  Plantain,*  dandelion,*  cheeses,* 
ground  ivy,  etc.  Harm  done;  how?  How  destroy  them? 
(168,  etc.;  230,  246  "  Weeds.") 

PLANT  GROUP  STUDIES:  Forest,*  grass  lands,*  swamps,* 
dunes,*  aquatic  plants.*  Visit  places  showing  these  groups. 
Note  the  conditions  of  moisture,  and  the  general  character 
of  the  vegetation.  Show  dependence  upon  environment. 
(156,  158,  190,  161.) 

GARDENING  AND  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE:  Methods 
of  plant  propagation  * — seeds,  slips,  roots,  tubers,  bulbs,  etc. 
Experiments  with  these  methods.  (221,  229,  222,  235.) 

Make  hot-bed.*  Review  principle.  Start  tomatoes,  cab- 
bages, zinnias,  pansies.  Teach  method  of  potting,  trans- 
planting. (229,  221,  222,  231.) 

Plan*  the  school-garden.  (See  Chapter  XVI.  240,  481.) 
The  pupils  should  have  individual  beds  if  possible,  and 
several  group  beds  for  experimental  planting.  Plan  a  bed 
for  strawberries.  The  pupils  may  spade  their  own  plots 
if  not  ploughed  for  them.  Let  them  select  beforehand  what 
they  want  to  plant,  and  plan  the  plot  so  as  to  meet  the  light 
requirements  of  the  plants,  putting  the  taller  to  the  north 
of  the  others.  If  fertilizer  is  needed  let  pupils  apply  it.  Se- 
lect seeds  from  list,  page  295.  If  injurious  insects  ap- 
pear, look  up  the  methods  of  control.  (231,  222,  229,  148, 
246,  bulletins,  seed  catalogues.) 

Encourage  the  planting  of  a  garden  at  home,  or  share  in 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         467 

the  work  of  the  family  garden.  If  given  proprietary  rights  at 
home  in  the  produce,  the  children  will  take  greater  interest 
and  pride  in  their  cultivation. 

Set  out  strawberries.     (221,  229.) 

On  Arbor  Day  set  out  ornamental  shrubs,  seedling  trees, 
vines,  perennials.  Plant  cuttings  of  grape,  ivy,  etc.  See 
list,  page  298.  (232,  229,  221.) 

Observe  Arbor  Day  at  home  by  planting  something  per- 
manent. Clean  up  the  grounds  at  school  and  at  home.  Re- 
move dead  limbs  from  trees,  repair  fences.  Develop  a  civic 
pride  in  school-grounds,  city  streets,  parks,  etc.,  and  do  not 
misuse  other  people's  property  or  improvements. 

Continue  work  with  the  school  wild-flower  garden. 

Exhibit  the  plants  raised  from  slips. 

SIXTH  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  The  work  this  year  is  carried  on 
much  the  same  as  that  of  the  last.  Read  Aim  and  Method, 
page  452.  The  beauty  of  nature  may  be  brought  more 
consciously  to  the  minds  of  these  children.  More  com- 
plex relations  can  be  worked  out,  as  the  factors  of  dis- 
tribution, biological  relations  of  plant  groups,  plants  and 
animals  in  relation  to  each  other,  the  conditions  of  plant 
and  animal  life,  including  human  life,  the  application  of 
principles  of  physics  to  inventions,  and  these  to  human  life, 
the  application  of  laws  of  chemistry  in  physiology,  etc. 
While  the  habits  of  creatures  are  as  interesting  as  before,  the 
details  of  structure  when  properly  connected  with  function 
or  adaptation  mean  more  and  are  more  interesting  than  to 
lower  grades.  The  economic  aspect  of  nature  is  still  more 


468  NATURE-STUDY 

emphasized.  Simple  elementary  science  is  introduced  under 
the  head  of  inventions  or  discoveries,  explanations  being 
sought  for  them  through  experimentation.  Causal  relations, 
generalizations  of  principles  from  observations,  comparisons 
and  wider  classifications  can  now  be  made.  But  do  not 
make  too  scientific.  Correlation  with  geography,  manual- 
training,  domestic  economy,  etc.,  should  continue.  In  this 
grade  it  might  be  advisable  in  more  rural  situations  to  spe- 
cialize the  nature-study  along  the  lines  of  elementary  agri- 
culture. 

Suggestions  for  correlated  art  lessons — see  p.  57.  The  asterisk  indicates 
subjects  for  drawings,  diagrams,  painting,  etc.  The  numbers  refer  to  gen- 
eral reference  list,  p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

EARTH  STUDY:  Review  briefly  common  minerals.  Add 
to  the  mineral  collection  crystals  of  minerals  and  crystalline 
rocks  of  igneous  origin.  Make  a  simple  study  of  volcanic 
rocks.  Economic  study  of  granite,  lime-stone,  sand-stone, 
and  marble.  (343,  347,  339,  336.) 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  their  ores,  mining,  simple  explanation 
of  purification,  uses.  Stories  of  gold-miners.  The  silver- 
smith. The  U.  S.  Mint.  (336,  339,  343,  320,  262,  etc., 
geographies,  magazines.) 

Soil-water:  Wells  and  springs.  Source.  Conditions. 
Minerals  in  solution.  "Fur"  in  tea-kettle.  Mineral  waters. 
Alkali  soil  and  water.  Relation  to  drinking  and  agriculture. 
(326,  327,  328,  262,  263,  etc.;  222,  241,  etc.) 

Visit  to  boulder  field,  morainic  deposits.  Compare  rocks 
and  soil  with  bed  rock  of  vicinity.  Origin  of  these  rocks 
and  soil?  Find  scratched  glacial  pebbles.*  Simple  talk 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         469 

about  the  great  glacier  and  some  of  its  effects.  Avoid  all 
theory.  This  topic  should  come  after,  and  in  connection 
with,  the  study  of  glaciers  in  geography.  Glacial  scenery — 
hills,  lakes.  (324,  332,  336,  339,  342,  344,  475.) 

WEATHER  STUDY:  The  barometer.*  Keep  record  of 
pressure  for  several  weeks.  Review  cause  of  wind.*  Rela- 
tion of  temperature  and  pressure  to  wind.  Follow  the 
course  of  a  storm  with  barometer  records.  Show  and  read 
weather  bulletins,  weather  maps.  Note  barometer  in  con- 
nection with  the  daily  bulletins.  Meaning  of  isotherms  and 
isobars.  Observe  the  predictions  and  the  verification.  Fol- 
low in  the  papers  the  course  of  some  "cyclonic"  storm  or 
cold  wave.  Note  the  course  taken  in  North  America.  Note 
damage  done  to  crops,  shipping,  etc.  Read  or  tell  about  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  its  purpose,  benefit  to  sailors, 
farmers,  etc.  Make  quite  simple.  (326,  328,  331,  345,  329, 
334,  338>  340.) 

PHYSICS:  Review  winds  (see  weather,  above.)  Con- 
struct a  barometer.*  Explain  the  principle.  Use.  Keep 
barometer  record.  Perform  simple  experiments  to  show 
effects  of  atmospheric  pressure.  Apply  to  pumps.*  Use 
models  and  diagrams.  Observe  a  cistern  pump  for  con- 
struction.* A  little  about  the  air-pump.  A  bicycle  pump.* 
Compressed  air — bicycle  tire,  pneumatic  delivery  in  stores. 
(251,  250,  255,  257,  etc.;  317,  318.  Barometer— also  326, 
327,  328,  etc.) 

Inventions:  The  balance.*  Construction,  equal  arms. 
Simple  talk  with  experiments  about  weight,  gravity,  falling 
bodies.  Make  informal  and  observational,  rather  than 
based  on  reasoning.  How  a  lever  is  used.  What  is  gained 
by  it?  What  is  meant  by  "purchase"?  What  is  a  see- 


470  NATURE-STUDY 

saw?*  What  is  a  balance,  crowbar,  pitchfork,  fish-pole, 
etc  ?  Do  not  try  to  apply  the  law  of  the  lever,  or  refer  to  the 
three  kinds  of  levers.  Similarly  study  in  a  simple,  exper- 
imental way  simple  pulley,*  block  and  tackle,  gearing, 
belts,*  derrick.*  Note  particular  advantages  gained  from 
each.  (251,  250,  255,  257,  217,  318.) 

Forces  of  nature  man  has  learned  to  utilize:  Begin  with 
primitive  man.  Note  absence  of  tools  and  labor-saving 
machines.  To-day  we  use  the  forces  of  animals,  the  wind, 
water-power,  steam,  and  electricity.  Let  children  mention 
illustrations.*  Visit  places  showing  application  of  these 
forces.  Visit  a  factory.  What  runs  all  the  machines? 
(References  as  the  last.) 

Heating  house  by  furnace — apply  convection.*  Hot- 
water  heating.  Apply  convection.  Illustrate  by  exper- 
iments.* (References  like  the  last.)  The  kitchen  hot-water 
tank. 

City  water  supply:*  Source.  Pumping  station, or  reservoir, 
mains,  water  pressure  (simple).  (References  like  the  last.) 

CHEMISTRY:  Simple  experiments  to  make  and  show 
the  properties  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  dioxide.  Show 
in  the  air,  or  make  from  the  air.  Combustion  chemistry 
(very  simple),  oxygen  of  air  uniting  with  carbon  (charcoal) 
to  make  carbon  dioxide.  Effects  of  CO2  on  a  flame,  on  life. 
Test  in  air  with  lime-water.  Test  the  breath  with  lime- 
water.  CO2  in  breath.  Connect  with  physiology.  (262, 
263,  264,  267,  269,  270,  272.) 

Natural  waters:  See  earth  study  above.  Ocean- water, 
why  salt  ?  How  table-salt  is  made  from  sea  water,  and  why 
it  is  found  in  the  earth.  (262,  263,  264,  317,  318,  326,  327, 

328.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         471 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:  Organic  impurities  in  well- 
water  or  other  drinking  water.  Sources  of  contamination 
— surface  drainage  into  well,  sewage  contamination  in  river 
supply.  Danger  of  drinking  such  water.  Diseases  that 
may  come  from  it — typhoid  especially.  (262,  263,  etc.,  209, 
208,  381,  368,  372,  379,  etc.)  Simple  talk  about  bacteria. 
Note  putridity  of  peas  in  water  after  a  few  days.  Exposed 
boiled  potato  kept  moist  under  glass  will  develop  a  growth 
of  bacteria.  Place  some  peas  in  a  bottle  of  water,  boil 
for  some  time,  and  seal.  Set  aside  and  observe  if  decay 
sets  in.  If  well  done  the  bottle  should  remain  clear.  Briefly 
tell  about  sterilization.  Refer  to  reason  for  boiling  fruit 
for  canning.  Discuss  nitration.  How  is  an  ordinary  water 
filter  made?*  (262,  263,  etc.)  Simple  talks  on  conta- 
gion, and  prevention  of  disease.  Keep  hands  and  face 
clean.  Clean  finger  nails,  do  not  spit,  do  not  cough  in 
people's  faces,  do  not  put  in  your  mouth  what  others  have 
had  in  theirs,  do  not  suck  the  pencil,  do  not  put  coins  or 
anything  but  the  proper  things  in  the  mouth.  Turning  leaves 
by  wetting  the  finger  is  not  only  bad  for  the  book,  but  is 
dangerous  to  the  health,  for  others  may  have  done  the  same 
before.  Discuss  the  need  of  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen, 
cellar,  refrigerator,  the  floors  of  home  and  school,  and  the 
streets  and  backyards.  Refer  to  the  evils  of  dust.  Car- 
pets vs.  rugs.  Mopping  vs.  sweeping  and  "dusting."  (209, 
208,  274,  373,  368a,  etc.,  375,  387.)  Why  do  we  keep 
people  in  quarantine?  Is  it  right?  (References  as  last.) 
House  ventilation* — home  and  school.  (251,  250,  368a, 
etc. ;  262,  etc. ;  386,  387.)  Need  for  it.  What  happens  to  the 
air  we  breathe.  Test  breath  for  carbon  dioxide.  In  a  simple 
way  discuss  the  source  of  this  CO2.  Refer  to  the  food  we 


472  NATURE-STUDY 

eat.  Char  some  starch  or  flour,  to  show  the  charcoal  or 
carbon  in  it.  The  oxygen  we  breathe  burns  this  in  our 
bodies  to  make  us  warm,  and  give  us  energy  as  in  an  engine. 
Compare  the  body  with  a  steam  engine — very  simple.  Show 
that  the  food  is  our  fuel.  We  eat  to  run  the  machinery  of 
our  body.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  a  waste,  and  is  breathed 
out.  Very  simple  study  of  the  lungs  and  circulation.  Use 
mannikin  charts,  diagrams,  models.  (379,  380,  370,  368, 
368a,  etc.;  267.) 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  Distribution  of  animals  (in  geography). 
(18,  33,  44,  geography.) 

Note  adaptation  to  climate,  food,  and  mode  of  life.  Arctic, 
temperate,  tropical;  animals  of  the  forest,  the  plains,  the 
sea. 

BIRDS:  Observe  migration.  (108,  100,  33,  34,  17,  etc.) 
Discuss  reason.  What  countries  they  go  to.  Use  map. 
Show  distances  travelled. 

Identification  study:*  Tern,  gull,  loon,  snipe,  sand- 
piper, night-hawk,  kinglet,  black  and  white  creeper,  brown- 
creeper.  Note  habits,  food,  economic  value.  (95  to  106; 
107  to  125.) 

INSECTS:  Simple  comparison  and  classification.  But- 
terflies *  and  moths,*  bee  group,*  dragon-flies,*  beetles,* 
bugs,*  flies*  and  mosquitoes,  and  locust*  group.  (33,  34, 
143,  132,  130,  etc.) 

Codling  moth.  Examine  a  number  of  apples.  Some 
will  be  wormy.  Note  the  little  caterpillar.  Trace  its  life 
history.*  Visit  orchard.  Try  to  find  the  moth  and  the 
cocoons.  Read  in  the  Year-books  of  the  U.  S.  Depart- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   ^ATURE-STUDY         473 

ment  of  Agriculture  about  the  loss  to  the  apple  crop  from 
this  insect.  Remedies.  (132,  136,  148,  130,  126,  222, 
229,  241,  etc.)  Also  observe  the  effects  of  scale-insects, 
bark  and  wood  borers,  weevils,  and  plant-lice.  Learn  to 
recognize  these.  Remedies.  (References  as  the  last.) 

Discuss  the  advantage  of  birds  in  an  orchard.  Observe 
the  birds  there.  (108,  100,  33,  120,  222,  241.) 

MISCELLANEOUS:  Simple  comparative  study  of  cray- 
fish,* lobster,*  and  crab.*  Study  shell,  casting  of  shell,  chief 
organs,  and  their  uses,  locomotion,  swimming,  defence,  food, 
uses,  how  caught,  etc.  (47,  84,  93,  85,  18,  etc.) 

From  a  pond  or  brook  collect  small  fresh-water  shrimps, 
minute  water  fleas,  and  observe  in  aquarium.  They  are 
minute  relatives  of  the  crayfish.  Put  some  of  them  into  a 
fish  aquarium.  Observe  how  eagerly  the  fish  eat  them. 
Refer  to  the  importance  of  these  little  animals  as  food  for 
fishes.  (References  as  above — also  42  and  49.) 

Informal  observations  on  clams,  snails,  earthworm,  leeches, 
etc.  collected  and  kept  in  aquaria.  Observe  in  the  ponds, 
etc.,  also.  (93,  33,  34,  47,  38.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING:  Put  garden  in  good  order.  Collect  daily 
bouquets  for  school.  Give  away  flowers.  Collect  the  garden 
products,  including  flowers,  and  with  the  plants  grown  in  the 
competition  make  an  exhibit.  Make  awards.  Collect  seeds 
for  next  year.  Label.  Give  away  or  exchange  seeds.  Let 
children  take  seeds  home. 

Prepare  cuttings  of  grapes,  ivy,  or  woodbine  for  the  next 
spring  for  lower  grades  to  plant.  (221,  229,  226,  241,  232.) 

Observe  the  pollination  of  pumpkins  or  squashes,  and  the 


474  NATURE-STUDY 

two  forms  of  flowers.*  Which  flower  produces  the  fruit? 
(152,  190,  156,  etc.) 

Mulch  the  strawberry  beds.  Protect  other  plants.  Set 
spring  bulbs  (221,  229,  bulb  catalogues).  See  also  page  280. 

Clean  up  for  winter. 

FRUITS:  Study  of  the  structure  *  of  some  fruits:  Apple, 
plum,  peach,  grape,  tomato,  orange,  pumpkin,  nut.  Try 
to  trace  the  apple,  etc.  from  the  flower.*  Show  how  the 
different  parts  of  the  apple  are  formed  from  the  flower  parts. 
What  portions  are  edible?  Compare  in  different  fruits. 

(152,   154,   156,   i93>  etc-) 

SEED  DISPERSAL:  What  is  the  meaning  of  sweetness, 
flavor,  odor,  and  color  in  the  fruit?  Why  do  the  plants 
"want"  the  animals  to  eat  their  fruit?  Discuss  dispersal  of 
the  seeds.  Find  illustrations  in  nature.  Examine  the  vines, 
shrubs,  and  trees  along  a  neglected  fence.  Note  the  numer- 
ous berry-bearing  plants,  and  infer  how  they  were  started 
here.  (152,  154,  156,  158,  161,  193,  etc.)  Dispersal  of 
dry-fruits  *  and  seeds :  Poppy,*  pinks,  boxelder,*  catalpa, 
thistle,*  milkweed,*  cocklebur,*  stick-tights,  burdock,  bal- 
sam, and  jewel  weed.  Refer  to  the  agents  of  dispersal. 
(191,  198,  and  the  references  in  the  last.) 

TREES:*  Catalpa,  hackberry,  sycamore;  white,  "Nor- 
way," and  Austrian  pines.  (173,  etc.,  220,  22oa,  219.) 

FLOWERS:  Dandelion  studied  as  a  composite.*  Com- 
pare with  thistle  and  sunflower.  Compare  with  double 
asters,*  dahlia,*  marigolds,*  etc.,  of  the  garden.  (152,  193, 
154,  156,  159,  etc.) 

Identify  and  study  Joe  pye-weed,*  dock,*  and  smart- 
weed,*  of  the  meadows.  Also  the  roadside  weeds:  Pinnate 
rag-weed,  tall  rag-weed,*  sunflower-leaved  rag-weed,  carpet- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         475 

weed,  sandburs,  squirrel-tail  grass,  rye  grass,  burdock,  nettle, 
hemp.* 

Observe  zonal  arrangement  along  the  road.*  Why  thus 
distributed?  Study  hemp  in  detail.  Note  the  abundance 
of  the  pollen  of  most  of  these  weeds.  Refer  to  wind  pollina- 
tion. Also  to  hay-fever  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  pollen. 
(168,  etc.;  222,  230,  241,  156,  246  "Weeds.") 

Observe  the  flowers  in  swamps,  meadows,  roadsides, 
pastures,  prairies,  and  copses.  Note  characteristics  and 
beauty*  of  each.  (183,  184,  153,  190,  4y6c,  etc.) 

MISCELLANEOUS  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS:  Ferns:*  Note 
the  kind  of  places  and  soil  where  they  grow,  their  beauty  and 
fragrance.  Dig  up  some  root-stalks  for  the  school-garden 
and  window-boxes.  Press  fronds  of  different  kinds,  and 
make  an  illustrated  fern  booklet  with  descriptions.  Note 
the  large  root-stalk  and  numerous  roots.  Note  the  coiled 
tips  of  the  young  fronds.*  On  under  side  of  leaf  observe 
spore  dots.*  Shake  some  ripe  fronds  on  white  paper.  Briefly 
refer  to  the  purpose  of  this  dust,  the  spores.  They  are  not 
seeds,  but  another  kind  of  propagative  device.  (193,  195, 
206,  152,  and  for  identification — 179,  172,  etc.) 

Moss,  studied  in  a  manner  similar  to  last.  Observe  the 
many  different  kinds.  Note  the  situations  they  grow  in. 
If  lost  in  the  woods  how  could  you  tell  north?  Note  the 
pretty  little  capsules  on  slender  stalks  of  many  mosses.  These 
contain  spores.  Examine  mosses  with  a  magnifying  or 
reading  glass.  Gather  some  moss  and  put  in  the  flower- 
pots and  window-boxes  around  the  flowers.  Better  still, 
make  a  moist  chamber  for  them.  (195,  193,  206,  152.) 

Observe  the  beautiful  lichens  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  on 
stones.  Also  observe  the  mats  of  liverwort  on  moist  and 


476  NATURE-STUDY 

shady  cliffs,  or  near  springs.     (References  as  the  last— also 
156,  159,  etc.) 

Mushroom:*  Simple  study  of  its  form  and  structure, 
rapid  growth,  edibility  or  poisonous  character.  Refer  to 
mycelium  in  the  ground  or  tree  as  the  largest  part  of  the 
plant.  General  effect  of  a  fungus  on  a  tree.  (195,  152,  154, 
155,  159,  167,  1 80,  190.) 

WINTER 
PLANTS. 

BACTERIA:  (In  connection  with  physiology).  (209,  190, 
152,  156.)  Simple  cultures  of  bacteria  (165,  166,  209.) 
Show  in  masses,  and  by  color,  decay  effects,  etc.,  and  not 
with  microscope.  Very  simple  experiment  in  contagion. 
(Sterilize  a  potato  by  baking.  Cut  with  sterilized  knife. 
Touch  one-half  against  a  dusty  surface.  Keep  both  moist 
under  glass,  and  observe  from  day  to  day.)  Refer  briefly 
to  disease  bacteria.  Sterilization  experiments.  Apply  to 
drinking  water. 

FRUIT  MOULDS  :  Simple  cultures  and  mere  observational 
lessons.  Why  is  the  fruit  cooked  in  canning?  (209,  165, 
166,  152,  156,  158,  246  "  Canning  fruit.") 

PLANT  DISTRIBUTION:  Visit  greenhouse.  Note  tropical 
climate  and  observe  tropical  plants*  such  as  palms,  banana, 
amaryllis,  lilies,  cannas,  callas,  and  orchids.  Note  the 
beauty  and  remarkable  patterns  in  many  of  these  flowers. 
Make  a  study  of  tropical  vegetation  and  the  conditions 
under  which  it  grows.  Take  palms  and  orchids  as  typical 
plants.  Read  and  show  pictures.  Characteristic  arctic 
flora:  Sparseness  and  stunting  of  higher  plants.  Sphag- 
num mosses  of  the  tundras,  and  arctic  reindeer  "moss" 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   N'ATURE-STUDY         477 

(lichen).  Temperate  flora:  Region  of  the  hardwoods,  con- 
ditions required  by  them,  principal  kinds  of  trees.  Re- 
gion of  the  conifers — their  requirements.  Chief  kinds.  Use 
the  map  and  apply  geography  of  climates.  The  prairies—- 
where, why  ?  The  grass  and  grain-land.  Relation  to  rainfall. 
Alpine  vegetation,  compare  with  arctic.  The  desert  plants 
— cactus  *  as  type.  Compare  the  Great  Plains  in  North 
America  with  deserts.  Cause  of  desert  type  of  vegeta- 
tion. Moisture  the  chief,  temperature  the  -next  greatest 
factor  in  distribution.  These  lessons  should  be  well  illus- 
trated with  pictures,  not  merely  talks  reviewing  the  geography. 
(161,  156,  158,  211,  220,  geographies,  physical  geographies, 
and  books  of  travel.  Perhaps  use  lantern  slides.) 

GARDENING:  Window  gardening  and  greenhouse  work. 
See  list,  Chapter  XVI  for  indoor  culture.  (229,  235.)  Give 
lessons  *  in  seed  sowing,  transplanting,  potting,  repotting, 
layering,  and  cuttings.  Start  rose  cuttings  and  layer  car- 
nations. (221,  235,  229,  240,  241,  224.) 

Hot-bed  (221,  229,  241,  222,  etc.):  Plant  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, tomato,  egg-plant,  flowers  for  early  starting.  Trans- 
plant later  in  garden  or  give  to  children  to  take  home. 

ANIMALS. 

MISCELLANEOUS:  The  oyster:  Where  found,  how  ob- 
tained. Compare  with  clam. 

Coral :  Examine  coral  *  skeleton  of  different  kinds.  Note 
beauty.  Observe  the  pits  or  little  holes  each  representing  a 
single  polyp.  Very  simple  description  of  the  polyp,  illus- 
trated by  drawings,  pictures,  and,  if  possible,  with  fresh-water 
hydra,  often  in  aquaria  with  water  plants.  Connect  with  the 
geography  of  coral  islands.  Do  not  take  up  the  atoll  theory. 


478  NATURE-STUDY 

Sponge:  Examine  different  kinds.  Brief  description  of 
the  living  animal,  its  sedentary  habit,  plant-like.  How 
"fished"  and  prepared.  Skeleton.  The  children  would 
be  interested  in  the  little  green  fresh-water  sponge  of  our 
lakes  and  streams.  Perhaps  a  specimen  may  be  found. 
(15,  18,  23,  33,  34,  88,  89,  90,  91,  92.) 

BIRDS:  A  bird's  wing:*  Prepare  wing  bones  and  make 
comparison  with  our  own  arm.  Bird's  leg.*  Treat  in  a 
similar  manner.  Plumage :  Uses,  different  sorts  of  feathers,* 
moulting,  spring  colors.  Flight.  Study  of  a  feather  in  de- 
tail. (108,  95,  100,  33,  34,  21,  etc.) 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:  (95,  to  125.)  Cardinal,*  towhee,*  indigo  bunt- 
ing,* bank-swallow,  peewee.  Identify  and  study  habits. 

Observe  again  birds  learned  before.  Let  individual  chil- 
dren examine  special  birds  *  to  write  up  later.  Make  a  com- 
parative study  of  the  usefulness  of  wood-peckers  (120,  no), 
also  of  hawks  and  owls  from  the  economic  standpoint. 

Discuss  and  observe  the  mating  colors  of  the  robin,* 
oriole,*  cardinal,*  rose-breasted  grosbeak,*  rooster,  and 
peacock.  Refer  also  to  the  change  of  dress,  in  the  fall,  of 
the  thistle  bird,  the  bobolink,  and  scarlet  tanager.*  (95  to 
125.)  Talks  on  egg  collecting,  shooting,  wearing  feathers. 
Protect  birds,  obey  bird  laws,  observe  Bird  Day.  (108, 
117,  113,  478.) 

INSECTS:  Observation  of  insects  in  the  garden  and 
orchard.  Note  harm  done;  look  up  remedies  and  apply. 
(132,  136,  148,  246,  " Insecticides,"  "Codling  Moth".) 

FISHES:  Identification  study  of  the  common  fresh- water 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         479 

fishes,*  their  habits,  habitats,  and  food  value.  Special 
adaptation  to  food  or  mode  of  life.  Primitive  and  modern 
methods  of  fishing,*  including  sea-fisheries.  Connect  study 
of  fisheries  with  geography.  Principal  kinds  of  salt-water 
fish:  Cod,  herring,  mackerel,  also  refer  to  sharks  and 
flying  fish. 

Fresh-water:  Bullhead,  sucker,  minnow,  carp,  salmon, 
(The  Story  of  the  Salmon  in  468),  trout,  pickerel,  eel,  sunfish, 
bass,  perch,  stickleback.  (42,  49,  46,  41,  313,  320,  322,  323.) 
Visit  fish  markets.  Note  methods  of  preservation.  Keep 
live  fish  in  an  aquarium,  and  make  studies  upon  their  habits. 
Discuss  the  breathing  of  a  fish.  Examine  the  gills  of  a  dead 
fish.  Why  must  the  water  be  changed  if  many  fish  are  in 
a  vessel  and  there  are  no  water  plants  ?  A  fish  can  drown  in 
water  that  has  been  boiled  and  cooled.  Why?  (33,  34,  42.) 

Read  sections  from  the  game  laws  pertaining  to  fishing. 
Why  such  laws? 

Encourage  obedience  to  these  laws.  Discuss  the  artificial 
hatching  of  fish,  and  the  stocking  of  lakes  and  streams  with 
them.  (21,  42,  magazines,  and  the  volumes  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  reports.) 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL:  Simple  lessons  in  plant  growth,*  illustrated 
experimentally  on  seedlings  and  plants  in  window-boxes  or 
greenhouse.  Review  the  work  of  the  root.  Show  by  ex- 
periment absorption  from  soil.  Observe  sap  in  stem.  Ob- 
serve maple-sap  and  the  "bleeding"  of  trees  and  vines  in 
spring.  Show  transpiration  from  leaves.  Grow  plants  in 
dark  to  show  relation  between  light  and  leaf-green.  Do 
the  simple  iodine  test  on  a  leaf  to  show  the  presence  of 


480  NATURE-STUDY 

starch  in  the  green  part.  Use  white-bordered  geranium  leaf. 
Emphasize  the  importance  of  the  leaf  as  a  starch  former, 
the  maker  of  the  food  for  the  plant.  Without  leaves  the 
ordinary  plants  would  starve.  Do  not  take  up  here  the 
sources  of  the  starch,  nor  the  relation  of  starch  formation 
to  light.  Leave  this  for  later  year.  Discuss  the  storage 
of  starch  for  later  use  in  roots,  tubers,  bulbs,  and  seeds. 
In  this  way  we  get  our  starch  for  food.  Show  by  exper- 
imental cultures  the  temperature,  light,  moisture,  and  fertil- 
ity conditions  needed  by  a  plant.  Much  of  this  can  be  ap- 
preciated by  the  sixth  grade  children,  but  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  make  the  matter  too  scientific.  Apply  these 
lessons  as  far  as  possible  in  the  school -garden.  (Refer- 
ences: 190, 152,  156, 158,  196,  165,  164,  222,  228,  241,  230, 
231,  223.) 

Modified  leaves :  Leaves  change  to  spines — thistle  *  and 
cactus;*  to  cups  in  pitcher  plants*;  to  tendrils  partly  or 
wholly  as  in  sweet  pea.*  Observe  these  and  refer  to  the 
advantages  to  the  plant  to  have  adopted  these  changes. 
(i52>  I54,  156,  14?  161,  193.  Pitcher  plants— 195,  104, 
192.)  Bulbs*  and  heads*  (cabbage)  are  also  modified 
arrangements  of  leaves.  They  may  be  compared  to  great 
buds.  Cut  lengthwise  and  note  structure.  (See  last.) 

TREES:  Compare  walnut  and  butternut.  Study  leaf, 
flower,  and  fruit.  Study  comparatively  the  oaks.*  Note 
that  there  are  two  forms  of  boxelders;*  the  one  with  stam- 
inate  flowers,  the  other  with  pistillate.  Refer  to  the  method 
of  pollination — by  wind.  What  other  trees  are  thus  polli- 
nated ?  Observe  abundant  pollen  in  such  trees.  Do  these 
trees  have  large  pretty  flowers?  (Refer  to  152, 193, 156, 154, 
159,  etc.) 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         481 

FLOWERS  :  Refer  to  the  pollination  of  grasses  and  grains, 
including  corn.  Are  their  flowers  large  and  pretty?  (Same 
as  last.) 

Observe  insects  in  roses,  fruit  tree  blossoms,  etc.  Discuss 
their  work  in  pollinating.  Dependence  of  the  fruit  crop 
upon  this.  (238,  page  289.)  Compare  the  flowers*  of 
apple,  plum,  pear,  cherry,  and  hawthorn,  and  note  great 
similarity.  Family  likeness.  Also  observe  the  pollination 
in  the  sweet  pea.  Discuss  the  advantage  of  the  peculiar 
form  in  pollination.  Similarly,  discuss  the  pollination  of  the 
Jack-in-the-pulpit  *  and  the  lady's-slipper.*  Discuss  the 
meaning  of  color,  nectar,  fragrance,  and  peculiar  form  to  the 
flower — aids  in  insect  pollination.  Compare  the  appearance 
of  wind  and  insect  pollinated  flowers.  Why  do  the  latter 
not  need  pretty  flowers  ?  Make  this  all  very  simple.  Illus- 
trate with  actual  flowers  and  with  drawings.  (200,  193,  207, 
156,  154,  158,  161,  etc.) 

Flowers  for  identification  and  study:  Ground  plum,* 
wild  geranium,*  lady's-slipper,*  wild  morning-glory,  virgin's 
bower.  (168,  etc.) 

GARDENING:  See  Chapter  XVI.  Let  this  grade  plan* 
the  whole  school-garden  as  far  as  laying  out  the  class  plots 
is  concerned,  each  grade  to  divide  up  its  own.  Let  these 
children  assist  in  spading,  raking,  fertilizing,  etc.  Lay  out 
beds — individual  preferred.  Keep  a  few  general  beds  for 
experimental  work  or  ornamental  plants.  Decide  upon  the 
vegetables  and  flowers  to  plant.  See  page  295.  Then  plant 
or  transplant  when  season  allows.  (240,  222,  224,  229,  etc.) 

Remove  mulch  from  beds,  etc.  Cultivate  regularly.  Ap- 
ply the  principles  of  plant  growth  learned  in  the  school- 
room. Study  the  weeds  and  injurious  insects.  Find  reme- 


48a  NATURE-STUDY 

dies.  (Insecticides:  229,  222,  241,  seed  catalogues.)  Urge 
home  gardening.  Encourage  parents  to  give  children  owner- 
ship of  their  produce.  Offer  seedlings  from  school.  Plant 
the  rose  cuttings  and  layered  carnations.  (221,  229,  232.) 
Make  a  fern  garden  in  a  moist  shady  place.  Prepare  a  rich 
wood  loam  bed.  Get  the  ferns  from  the  woods.  Make  an 
ornamental  rockery  with  trailing  flowers.  Arrange  a  birds' 
drinking  trough  at  the  top.  If  city  water  is  available  a  pipe 
could  be  laid  in  the  rock  and  a  fountain  made  to  play.  Ce- 
ment could  be  used  to  hold  the  rock  and  make  plant  pock- 
ets and  basins  for  the  birds. 

ARBOR  DAY:  Transplant  grafted  trees  from  the  school 
nursery  in  suitable  places:  Apple  or  cherry.  (221,  232,  240, 
229,  222,  241,  220^  etc.)  Follow  directions  carefully.  Or 
plant  perennials  (list  Chapter  XVI),  roses  or  other  shrubs, 
vines  or  window-boxes.  Observe  the  day  at  home.  En- 
courage children  to  clean  up  the  school-grounds,  trim  trees, 
etc.,  and  have  pride  in  their  school.  Encourage  cleaning  up 
and  beautifying  the  home  grounds;  try  to  develop  civic  pride 
and  a  respect  for  the  attempts  of  private  owners  to  improve 
their  places. 

ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE:  Select  the  best  seed  corn 
(241,  222,  228,  230.)  and  let  the  boys  compete  at  home  in  the 
raising  of  corn,  to  be  exhibited  in  the  fall. 

Soil  study:  Kinds  suitable  for  corn  and  other  crops.  Soil, 
fertility,  and  soil  moisture.  Kinds  of  fertilizers.  Purpose 
of  tillage.  Ploughing,  etc.  Methods  of  planting  and  sow- 
ing crops.  Purpose  of  cultivation.  Methods.  Machinery 
of  the  farm.  Adaptation  of  crops  to  soil  and  climate  (corn, 
cotton).  Crop  rotation,  purpose.  (Irrigation.)  Harvesting. 
Farm  pests  and  remedies  (insects  and  weeds). 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         483 

Brief  discussion  of  the  principles  of  feeding  farm  animals. 
Their  care.  The  farm.  Importance  to  the  nation.  Inde- 
pendence of  the  farmer.  Beauty  of  the  country.  Get  cat- 
alogue from  state  or  district  agricultural  schools  and  describe 
the  work  at  the  school.  Encourage  boys  to  attend.  (228, 
222,  223,  226,  227,  231,  239,  241,  242,  243,  244,  246.  Year- 
books of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Reports  of  State 
Agricultural  schools.) 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  The  nature-study  in  this  grade 
merges  into  what  is  generally  known  as  elementary  science. 
The  difference  is  that  the  method  of  study  is  more  inductive, 
and  the  pupils  are  made  more  conscious  of  the  logic  of 
their  own  thinking.  The  experiment  is  used  to  a  greater 
extent  and  to  more  advantage  in  this  grade.  There  is  more 
system  in  the  different  sciences  studied  and  they  may  be  pre- 
sented in  larger  units  without  wearying  the  pupil  or  de- 
stroying his  interest.  The  logical  requirements  of  the  sciences 
receive  more  consideration  in  their  presentation.  All  this  is 
possible  because  of  the  greater  mental  maturity  of  the  pupils 
of  this  grade. 

Inanimate  nature  is  of  greater  interest.  Therefore  we  give 
more  of  earth  forces,  physics  and  chemistry,  more  of  invention 
and  the  application  of  scientific  principles  to  the  industries. 
The  economics  of  plants  and  animals  receive  more  attention. 
There  is  more  interest  in  the  social  application  of  the 
facts  of  science,  in  the  welfare  of  the  many,  and  in  altru- 
ism toward  future  generations,  and  the  outlook  is  more 
national.  In  these  grades  the  scientific  bent  of  the  pupil 


484  NATURE-STUDY 

may  be  emphasized  toward  some  special  science,  which  may 
encourage  him  to  further  study  in  the  high  school. 

A  laboratory  is  a  great  advantage  in  the  grammar  grades. 
It  would  be  well  if  the  pupils  could  do  considerable  individual 
experimentation.  At  any  rate  they  should  be  required  to 
assist  the  teacher  in  the  experiments  and  devise  and  perform 
many  of  them  themselves. 

In  some  schools  it  is  the  practice  to  put  an  elementary 
text-book  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils.  This  can  be  done  with 
physics,  physiology,  and  geology,  and  possibly  with  other 
sciences.  In  that  case  the  lesson  should  be  conducted  upon 
the  usual  nature-study  plan  of  personal  observation  and 
inference,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  mere 
repetition  of  the  book.  Considerable  reference  work  may 
be  assigned  in  these  grades,  and  home  reading  on  the  partic- 
ular lessons  or,  in  general,  upon  invention,  discovery,  hunting, 
animal  stories,  biography,  etc.,  should  be  encouraged.  The 
written  work  in  nature-study  may  consist  of  recording  obser- 
vations in  the  field  or  the  laboratory,  keeping  them  in  neat 
and  accurate  order,  writing  them  up  in  home  tasks  and  essays, 
or  may  be  kept  in  descriptive  book  form.  For  example,  the 
pupils  should  illustrate  and  write  up  in  a  simple  way  their 
experiments  in  physics. 

Care  should  be  given  to  the  attainment  of  some  degree  of 
accuracy  in  observation,  reasoning,  construction,  and  expres- 
sion. Yet  do  not  make  the  mistake  to  apply  high-school 
methods.  The  experiments  should  be  almost  wholly  of  the 
qualitative  sort,  and  no  accurate  or  difficult  measurement 
should  be  required.  Avoid  teaching  definitions  and  laws  ex- 
cept through  usage.  Do  not  use  technical  language.  Do  none 
but  the  clearest  [and  simplest  experiments.  Avoid  theoriz- 


A  GRADED   COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY         485 

ing.  Make  considerable  of  the  application  of  principles  to 
life  situations  or  industries,  etc.,  and  if  possible  observe  these 
applications.  Allow  the  children  to  exercise  their  construc- 
tive and  inventive  talents. 

The  elementary  agriculture  becomes  more  and  more 
specialized,  and  could  be  well  taught  in  a  separate  department 
as  applied  science,  just  as  we  do  with  domestic  economy  and 
manual  training. 

The  work  in  the  seventh  grade  presents,  perhaps,  a  greater 
variety  of  topics  than  the  eighth,  and  the  logical  sequence 
of  the  sciences  is  not  pressed  quite  so  far.  The  reasoning 
demanded  is  also  not  quite  so  severe.  Otherwise  this  discus- 
sion applies  with  equal  force  to  both  grades. 

Suggestions  for  correlated  art  lessons — see  p.  57.  The  asterisk  indicates 
subjects  for  diagrams,  drawings,  paintings,  etc.  The  numbers  refer  to  gen- 
eral reference  list,  p.  521. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

EARTH  STUDY:  Economic  geology :  Building  stones,  clay, 
ores,  metals  (iron),  mining  methods;  the  Age  of  Steel;  peat, 
coal  (different  kinds) ;  salt,  borax,  sulphur.  Discuss  the  chief 
localities  where  each  is  found,  mode  of  occurrence,  manner 
of  getting  it,  treatment  in  purification,  commerce,  importance 
in  the  arts.  Something  may  be  done  with  the  origin.  (Physical 
geographies,  and  geologies,  326,  339,  330,  337,  343,  348, 47sa. 
Geographies  and  commercial  geographies  also  320.  Tarr's 
' ' Economic  Geology. ' '  Industry  1316,317, 323,  321.  Inven- 
tions: 321,  287,  288,292.) 

PHYSICS  :  Water  power  and  its  applications.*  The  steam 
engine,*  its  principle  and  uses.  Examine  an  engine  at  work, 
also  the  boiler.*  Have  engineer  describe  the  running  of 


486  NATURE-STUDY 

the  engine,  its  parts,  etc.  Use  diagrams  and  models  to  illus- 
trate general  principles.  Do  not  make  complex,  simply  the 
principle  of  steam  pressure  and  the  action  of  the  slide  valve 
and  piston.  Uses  of  the  steam  engine.  What  would  be 
some  of  the  results  without  it  ?  Visit  factory,  power  plant, 
machine-shop.  Examine  school  steam-plant.  Brief  study  of 
the  locomotive  and  a  modern  passenger  train.  The  engineer. 
The  mechanic. 

Sound:  Simple  principles;  vibration,  transmission,  echo, 
sounding-boards.  Musical  instruments  to  illustrate  the 
principles  of  quality  and  pitch — piano,  violin,  flute,  whistle, 
organ  pipe,  drum.  The  phonograph.  Make  a  record. 
Thomas  A.  I^dison.  The  inventor.  The  physics  of  the 
ear  *  and  the  voice.* 

Sources  of  light.  Rays,  sunbeams  in  dust,  mirrors*  and 
reflection  (very  simple;  do  not  try  to  construct  image). 
Uses  of  mirrors.  Where  do  you  seem  to  stand  ?  Move  your 
right  hand.  Which  seems  to  move  ?  How  is  a  mirror  made  ? 
Study  of  shadows,*  conditions.  Experiment  with  a  burning 
glass.*  Show  in  a  dark  room  how  the  rays  are  brought  to- 
gether. Very  simple  study  of  a  reading  lens  or  magnifying 
glass.  Pin-hole  camera.* 

References:  Physics:  251,  259,  261,  450,  255,  318,  317, 
250,  257,  etc. 

Invention:  292,  293,  294,  285,  288,  289,  etc. 

Boys'  books  for  construction  and  experiments:  279,  281, 
283,  284. 

.WEATHER:  Review  of  atmospheric  physics:*  Moisture, 
evaporation,  condensation,  clouds,  precipitation,  rain,  snow, 
ice,  frost,  convection,  winds.  Pressure  and  barometer,* 
Relation  between  storms  and  pressure.  Cyclonic  storms, 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         487 

cause,  wind  direction,  general  path  over  United  States. 
Prediction  of  a  progressing  cyclonic  storm.  Follow  the 
daily  weather  bulletins  on  map,  and  note  the  progress  of  the 
storm.  Observe  the  wind  and  the  barometer,  and  also  the 
cloudiness,  etc.,  before,  during*  and  after  the  storm.  What 
the  weather  maps  tell.  How  predictions  are  made.  De- 
scription of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  its  work 
and  methods,  its  value  to  sailors,  farmers,  and  others.  Use 
of  the  thermometer,  barometer,  hygrometer,  rain-gauge, 
weather  maps.  Keep  a  record  of  the  weather  with  these 
instruments  for  a  number  of  weeks  in  different  seasons. 
Study  the  record  and  make  out  relations  between  the  weather 
and  the  wind,  pressure  and  temperature.  (Apply  in  geog- 
raphy. Art-studies  of  landscapes.) 

References:  Physics:  251,  259,  250,  254,  257,  258,  247, 
248,  449,  450. 

Physical  Geography  and  Meteorology:  327,  328,  326,  338, 
334,  340,  331,  345,  341,  449.  See  also  geographies. 

CHEMISTRY:  Of  the  kitchen:  Acid  (vinegar,  lemon, 
muriatic  acid).  Alkali  (lye,  soap,  soda,  borax).  Oil  and 
fat.  Make  soap.  Common  salt,  baking-powder,  soda,  and 
cream  of  tartar.  Neutralizing  acids  or  alkali.  Examine  and 
test  in  the  laboratory  the  properties  of  each.  Discuss  the 
household  use  and  the  properties  utilized.  Make  simple  and 
practical.  Chemistry  of  bread.  References,  Chemistries: 
263,  264,  269,  266.  Cooking  and  cleaning:  262,  268,  274. 

Fuels  and  illuminants:  Review  combustion  of  carbon. 
Review  oxygen.  (263,  264,  269,  262.) 

Iron :  Smelting  and  reducing  of  iron  ore.  Visit  smelter  if 
near  one.  Simple  experimental  illustration  (red  lead  on  char- 
coal before  blowpipe).  Visit  a  foundry.  Observe  casting. 


488  NATURE-STUDY 

Visit  a  rolling  mill,  or  illustrate  with  pictures.  Discuss  these 
processes.  Visit  a  machine  shop.  (Connect  with  study  of 
iron  in  earth-study  above.) 

References:  Chemistry:  264,  263,  266,  270,  etc.  Indus- 
try and  Invention:  316,  317,  318,  322,  287,  288,  etc. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:  Bacteria  and  disease:  See 
experiments  with  bacteria  in  botany  below.  Infection. 
Sterilization.  Disinfection.  Quarantine.  Sanitation  of  home 
and  city.  (209,  208,  199,  38^,  372,  373,  368,  375,  387.) 
Review  rules  of  cleanliness  given  in  physiology,  Grade  VI. 
Evils  of  dust. 

Patent  medicines,  danger  in.  Value  of  medicines.  The 
physician.  Dr.  Pasteur.  Nursing  rules.  Emergency  rules. 
(368a,  368,  373,  376,  371.) 

The  interrelations  of  food,  circulation,  respiration,  and 
work.  Make  simple.  Use  comparison  of  the  engine.  ( 368a, 

373.  368>  371*  372-) 

General  plan  of  the  ear*  and  eye,*  defects  and  remedies* 
and  hygiene.  Compare  eye  with  a  camera.*  Use  simple 
diagrams,  models,  etc.  The  voice.*  Care.  (368a,  368, 
37°>  372>  373>  3&>>  386.) 

ASTRONOMY:  Shadows.  See  Physics  above.  Eclipses,*  con- 
ditions. Phases  of  the  moon.  Observatories.  Stories  of 
astronomers.  The  story  of  the  calendar.  Causes  of  the  sea- 
sons.* (390,  396,  402, 449,  391-  Boyle's  "  Calendar  Stories.") 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:  List  of  the  birds  that  eat  grain  and  fruit,  that  eat 
poultry,  that  eat  insects,  that  eat  weed  and  grass  seeds, 
that  destroy  field  mice,  gophers,  etc.  (120,  108,  117,  33,  34, 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         489 

246  "  Common  Birds."  Agricultural  Year-books.  Also  see 
Chapter  IX.)  Study  of  the  introduction  and  spread  of  the 
English  sparrow  and  the  results.  Methods  of  extermi- 
nation. (5,  120.) 

More  detailed  study  of  migration;  causes,  destinations, 
mode  of  travel,  routes  of  travel.  Special  study  of  the  robin, 
wild  duck,  bobolink,  humming-bird.  Observe  migration  and 
feeding  habits  of  the  birds.  Discussion  of  winter  residents. 
(100,  108,  33,  34,  96,  64,  21  for  migration.) 

INSECTS:  Have  pupils  make  a  collection  of  insects.* 
(See  Chapter  XIII.)  Let  the  insects  be  neatly  mounted  and 
classified  by  orders.  Groups  might  be  set  at  work  collecting 
and  mounting  sets  of  insects  that  eat  vegetables,  that  injure 
shade  trees,  that  are  beneficial.  Butterfly  collection.  Set 
showing  protective  coloration.  Life  history  sets.  A  silk- 
moth  chart.  These  to  be  kept  by  the  school.  Begin  early  in 
fall.  (143,  136,  132,  33,  34,  130,  126,  148,  i48a.) 

General  study  of  the  food  of  insects.  Simple  study  of  the 
adaptation  of  the  mouth  organs  for  this  food.  (148,  136, 
132,  231,  241,  222,  i48a.) 

Amount  of  damage  done  by  the  codling  moth,  by  the  scale 
insects,  by  chinch  bugs,  locusts,  cotton-boll  weevil.  (Look 
up  in  the  Year-books  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
also  in  magazines,  in  148,  i48a,  136,  130,  etc.)  Story  of  the 
locust  plague  in  United  States.  Read  descriptions  from  the 
Bible  about  locusts.  Insecticides,  how  they  act,  how  pre- 
pared and  applied.  (148,  231,  221,  241,  i48a,  246  "In- 
secticides." Also  seed  catalogue.) 

Value  of  bee  culture.  (133,  144,  246  "Beekeeping,"  i48a, 
148.)  Importance  of  the  silk  industry.  (47,  312,  317,  316, 
320,  246  "Silkworm,"  148,  i48a.) 


490  NATURE-STUDY 

Relation  between  insects  and  flowers,  mutual  benefits,  our 
benefit.  (200,  207,  215,  i56;  158,  161,  238,  page  289.)  Re- 
lation of  birds  to  insects  (120,  108,  33,  34,  3,  246  "  Common 
Birds,"  Year-books  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  See 
Chapter  XIV.) 

Parasitic  Insects:  Ichneumon  flies,  etc.  Benefit  to  us. 
(148,  i48a,  132,  136,  130,  33,  34.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING  AND  AGRICULTURE:  Put  garden  in  order 
after  the  summer's  neglect. 

Exhibit  of  corn  raised  in  competition  at  home,  and  judging 
and  giving  award.  Exhibit  of  vegetables  and  flowers,  nature 
paintings,  and  drawings,  note  books,  mounted  plants,  insect 
collections,  etc.  A  good  plan  would  be  to  exhibit  at  the 
county  fair.  Visit  fair  and  observe  products  of  the  farm, 
garden  and  orchard.  (Corn  judging  222,  241,  228,  226,  etc.) 

Set  out  bulbs  for  spring  flowering.  Later,  protect  beds  and 
plants  for  the  winter.  Clean  up.  (221,  229,  224,  bulb 
catalogues.) 

USEFUL  PLANTS  :  The  native  fruit  industry — Apple,  peach 
grape,  orange. 

Study  the  fruit*  briefly.  Derive  it  from  the  flower.* 
Nursery  work  with  fruit  trees.  Orchards,  planting  and  care. 
Injurious  insects  and  fungi.  Remedies  (See  above — Insects; 
and  Rusts  and  Blights  below.)  Picking  and  shipping.  Fruit 
regions.  Climatic  conditions.  Best  varieties  in  the  locality. 
Value  of  the  crops.  Encourage  home  fruit  growing.  Visit 
a  commission  house.  (238,  232,  313,  222,  241,  etc.,  geog- 
raphies and  commercial  geographies,  Agricultural  Year-books, 
nursery  catalogues.) 


A  GRADED  COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY    491 

The  tropical  fruit  industry:  Banana:*  Where  grown, 
climate,  the  tree  and  fruit.  Shipment  and  preser- 
vation. Figs  and  dates,  similarly.  (313,  geographies, 
commercial  geographies,  geographical  magazines,  School 
Science,  Birds  and  Nature,  Year-books  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture).  Discuss  the  introduction  of  foreign  plants 
into  this  country.  Make  a  list  including  fibre  plants,  fruit, 
grains,  grasses,  and  trees.  What  native  plants  has  this 
country  sent  to  other  lands?  (318,  317,  213,  320,  "Practical 
Flora,"  by  Willis.) 

AQUATIC  PLANTS:  Observe  in  river  or  pond.  Note  gen- 
eral character,  and  collect  different  kinds.  They  need  not 
be  named  except,  perhaps,  water  milfoil,  pickerel  weed,  eel 
grass,  duckweed,  and  bullrushes.  Note  the  abundant  growth. 
Observe  the  minute  animals  that  live  in  it.  Discuss  the 
relation  of  these  to  fishes.  Note  *  the  gradual  filling  up  of 
the  pond  by  these  weeds.  Observe  a  swamp*  and  a  low 
meadow,*  and  observe  that  these  are  later  stages  of  the  pond- 
filling  process.  Note  the  peaty  substance  of  the  swamp  and 
meadow.  Its  origin?  Refer  to  origin  of  coal.  (156,  158, 
1 66,  161,  153,  etc.)  On  the  sea  shore,  study,  collect,  and 
press  seaweeds. 

TREES  :  Observe  and  identify  ash  and  Kentucky  coffee 
tree.  Make  a  more  detailed  study  of  leaf  fall:*  Manner, 
conditions,  scars,  and  healing;  need  of  leaf  fall.  Study  the 
autumn  colors,*  both  from  the  aesthetic  and  the  scientific 
standpoint.  Does  the  frost  make  the  colors  ?  Suppose  the 
leaves  are  frozen,  do  the  colors  appear?  Note  the  character- 
istic color  changes  of  particular  trees.*  Make  a  list  classify- 
ing the  trees  as  to  autumn  colors — reds,  yellow,  etc.  Observe 
that  the  buds  for  next  spring  are  already  formed.  What 


492  NATURE-STUDY 

is  their  relation  to  the  leaf  scar?*  (152,  156,  159,  161,  154, 
Flagg,  "A  Year  with  Trees,"  4750.) 

IDENTIFICATION:  Dodder*  (a  parasite),  poison  ivy,  poison 
nightshade,  poison  "jimsonweed,"*  poison  pokeweed,  jewel 
weed,  evening  primrose,*  climbing  bittersweet,*  gentians.* 
Note  appearance,  habitat,  and  characteristics.  (168,  etc.) 

GRASSES:  Stems,  leaves,  flowers,  pollination,  fruit,  root- 
stalk,  wintering,  uses,  native  of  what  country:  June  grass, 
rye-grass,*  timothy,*  millet,  the  grains,*  corn,*  sorghum,* 
sugar  cane,  bamboo.  (169,  230,  231,  222,  241,  213,  225,  152, 

154,  i56>  i59>  l6lO 

WEEDS:  Quackgrass,*  barnyard  grass,*  squirrel  tail 
grass,  foxtail,  sand-bur.  (See  last  references.)  Prickly 
lettuce,  Russian  "  thistle,"  Canada  thistle,  mustard,  mullein,* 
milkweed,*  daisy  *  (whiteweed),  pigweed,  lambs' -quarters. 
These  are  all  common  field  weeds.  Identify  them,  study 
the  harm  they  do,  the  way  they  spread,  go  to  seed,  how  they 
were  introduced,  etc.,  and  how  they  may  be  exterminated. 
Read  laws  against  weeds.  (230,  222,  241,  231,  226,  256,  246 
"  WEEDS.")  Visit  fields  and  observe  the  plants.  What  good 
can  be  said  for  weeds  ?  What  is  a  weed  ? 

FUNGI:  Mushroom,*  shape,  gills,  spores,  mycelium,  can 
grow  in  the  dark,  has  no  green  color,  does  not  make  its  own 
food,  but  either  steals  it  from  a  living  plant  (tree)  or  uses  the 
food  in  the  dead  bodies  of  other  plants.  General  effects  of 
fungi,  death  to  living  plant,  decay  of  the  dead.  The  good 
done  by  fungi  of  decay  in  a  forest.  Distinction  between  edi- 
ble *  and  poisonous  *  mushrooms.  Collect  as  many  different 
kinds  of  mushrooms  as  can  be  found.  Note  the  variety  of 
form,  etc.  Study  puff-balls  and  shelf -fungi.*  (152,  156, 
190,  154,  159,  153,  220,  195,  167,  180.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         493 

Rusts  and  blights:  Lilac  blight,  etc.,  wheat  rust,  apple 
rust,  aster  rust,  etc.  Observations  of  general  appearance, 
using  a  magnifying  glass,  general  effects  on  the  "host."  Dis- 
cuss the  damage  to  wheat  crop.  These  are  plant  diseases. 
(U.  S.  Agricultural  Year-books,  154,  156,  153,  222,  241,  230, 
etc.) 

WINTER 
ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS:  The  farm  animals,  general  discussion  of 
their  uses,  and  of  the  various  breeds  suitable  for  one  use 
or  another.  Apply  especially  ro  cattle.  Study  of  the  dairy. 
Best  stock,  care,  treatment  of  milk,  etc.  The  creamery  and 
butter  making.  Milk  tests,  make  some.  (231,  241,  226,  228, 
223,  Farm  Journals,  Year-books  of  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, and  Farmers'  Bulletins,  246 — Nos.  143,  106,  53, 
241,  42,  64,  184,  34,  205.) 

PLANTS. 

TREES  :  The  farmer's  wood-lot — how  to  use  and  keep  it. 
Farm  forestry.  Planting  on  the  prairies.  (220,  219,  218,  217 ; 
Farmer's  Bulletin  Nos.  228  and  134  in  reference  246;  U.S. 
Agricultural  Year-books.) 

THE  LIFE  OF  A  TREE  (THE  OAK*):  Apply  the  princi- 
ples of  absorption,  soil  fertility,  climatic  conditions,  trans- 
piration, flow  of  sap  in  stem,  relation  to  the  light,  starch 
formation,  flowering,  pollination,  fruit  formation,  seed  dis- 
persal, yearly  growth  of  stem  (annual  rings  *),  yearly  growth 
of  twigs,*  leaf  fall,  winter  state  of  buds,*  insect  enemies,  the 
lumberman,  the  farmer,  forest  fires,  fungous  parasites,  storms, 
decay,  death.  (Ward's  "The  Oak,"  152,  156,  158,  161, 
220,  219,  22oa,  132,  136,  148.) 


494  NATURE-STUDY 

GARDENING:  Nursery  work — grafting,*  budding,*  (232, 
229,  230,  240,  223,  222,  241.  See  page  288.) 

Culture  of  boxed  and  potted  plants.  (See  Chapter  XVI 
for  list.  235,  221,  229,  224,  245.) 

Talks  about  farmers'  institutes.  Attend.  Call  attention 
to  the  free  distribution  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  (see  reference 
246).  Send  for  lists. 

Talks  about  agricultural  colleges  or  rural  industrial  schools. 
Send  for  catalogue.  Encourage  boys  and  girls  to  attend  if 
they  have  a  fondness  for  country  life. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  keep  poultry,  doves,  etc.,  to  take 
care  of  the  cow  or  horse  at  home.  Perhaps  their  parents 
may  give  them  a  calf  or  a  colt,  etc.,  to  take  care  of.  Let  them 
read  about  how  to  feed,  etc.,  and  apply  their  knowledge. 
Encourage  home  reading  of  elementary  books  on  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  seed  catalogues,  farm  papers,  etc.  (See 
references  222,  etc.)  Discuss  the  comparative  advantages 
of  farm  and  city  life,  emphasizing  the  healthfulness  and  the 
beauty  of  the  country,  and  the  independence  of  the  farmer. 
Read  literature  appreciative  of  rural  life  and  scenes.  Refer 
to  the  great  men  who  have  lived  on  a  farm.  Consider  the 
modern  improved  machinery  of  the  farm,  the  conveniences 
and  even  the  luxuries  to-day  possible,  such  as  gas,  telephone, 
free  delivery,  books,  and  papers,  rural  electric  lines,  and  con- 
solidated schools. 

BACTERIA:  Connect  with  physiology  above.  Simple  ex- 
perimental cultures  to  show  bacteria  of  decay.  Experi- 
ments in  inoculation  of  culture  media;  sterilization;  canning 
fruit;  bad  fruit  and  meat.  Bacteria  in  dust. — Hardwood 
floors  vs.  carpets;  mopping  vs.  sweeping  and  l< dusting." 
Bacteria  in  milk.  Bacteria  and  disease.  Contagion.  Dis- 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         495 

infection.  Some  useful  bacteria :  Vinegar,  cheese,  soil  (nitrify- 
ing), tanning,  etc.  (209,  208,  156,  165,  see  also  physiolo- 
gies: 368a,  370,  380,  371,  386,  387,  199,  230,  242,  231.)  It 
may  be  advisable  to  use  a  compound  microscope  to  show 
some  of  the  larger  bacteria. 

YEAST  AND  MOULD:  Start  some  yeast  in  a  dilute  sugar 
solution.  Observe.  Note  alcoholic  odor  and  bubbles  given 
off  (CO2).  These  substances  are  made  by  the  yeast  from 
the  sugar.  Set  some  bread.  Observe  rise  of  dough,  the 
bubbles  of  gas  (CO2)  formed  by  the  yeast  from  the  sugar 
in  the  dough.  Discuss  purpose  of  the  rising.  (262,  195 
156,  159,  166,  263,  267,274.)  Moulds:  Raise  some  mould 
on  fruit  or  on  leather.  (Reference  as  last.) 

SPRING 
ANIMALS. 

BIRDS:*  Review  of  all  the  birds  previously  studied. 
Classify  them,  as  swimmers,  waders,  and  shore-birds, 
scratching  birds,  birds  of  prey,  perching  and  song-birds, 
and  miscellaneous.  Make  a  bird  calendar,  note  nesting, 
song,  care  of  young,  food,  and  other  interesting  habits. 
(95  to  124.) 

The  natural  enemies  of  birds :  Men  and  boys  as  destroyers 
of  birds  for  game,  eggs,  "  sport."  Women  as  destroyers  in 
wearing  plumage.  Tell  how  some  of  the  plumage  is  obtained 
(snowy  egret).  Arouse  sympathy  for  birds  and  a  desire  to 
protect  them.  Read  game  and  bird  laws.  Discuss  their 
purpose.  Teach  to  obey  them.  Observe  Bird  Day.  Read 
about  Audubon.  (403.)  Form  an  Audubon  Society.  (120, 
117,  ico,  96,  113,  107,  122,  478,  479.) 

INSECTS:    Flies    and    mosquitoes:     Briefly    review    with 


496  NATURE-STUDY 

culture  experiments  the  life-cycles-*  of  these  insects.  Note 
their  food  and  how  their  mouths  are  adapted  for  getting  it. 
Note  the  habit  of  flies  in  collecting  on  filthy  and  decaying 
matter.  Such  places  are  probably  full  of  bacteria  of  decay, 
and  perhaps  disease.  What  would  probably  be  the  result 
if  these  flies  should  now  walk  on  our  food  ?  Discuss  further 
this  point  of  flies  carrying  disease  germs.  Remedies.  In  a 
similar  manner  consider  the  mosquito  that  causes  malaria. 
The  mosquito  biting  a  malarial  patient  may  get  the  germs 
of  malaria  and  later  transmit  them  to  others.  Refer  to  the 
probable  cause  of  yellow-fever's  being  a  mosquito  inoculating 
people  with  the  fever  germs.  Usual  remedies  used  against 
mosquitoes.  Apply  as  far  as  possible  at  home.  (129,  133, 
130,  148,  33,  34,  i48a.) 

PLANTS. 

GENERAL  :  The  seed :  *  Study  large  seeds,  such  as  Lima 
bean,  squash,  corn,  etc.,  and  observe  the  coats,  and  em- 
bryo or  plantlet  with  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves.  In  the 
corn  note  the  germ  and  the  food  store  of  starch.  Discuss 
the  function  of  the  seed-leaves.  Grow  seedlings  *  in  soil 
and  also  in  glass  germinators  (see  Chapter  XVII)  and  ob- 
serve various  methods  of  getting  out  of  the  seed  and  mode 
of  growth.  Note  how  the  seedlings  behave  above  the  ground. 
What  they  do  with  their  seed  leaves.*  Note  especially  on  beans 
how  the  seed  leaves  shrivel.  What  becomes  of  the  material 
that  was  in  them?  Cut  off  the  seed  leaves  of  several  bean 
seedlings  soon  after  they  are  above  the  ground  and  observe 
the  starving  and  perishing  of  the  plant.  What  is  the  use  of 
the  stores  of  starch  in  the  corn  ?  Dig  up  a  corn  seedling  that 
has  been  growing  for  some  time.  Note  that  the  kernel  from 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         497 

which  it  sprang  is  empty  and  soft.  What  has  become  of 
the  material  that  was  in  it?  Try  this  experiment:  Soak 
some  kernels  of  corn  and  cut  away  most  of  the  food  supply, 
but  do  not  injure  the  germ.  Plant  these  and  observe  the 
result.  .  Why  should  we  select  the  biggest  and  plumpest  seeds  ? 
What  part  of  an  ear  of  corn  would  you  choose  for  planting? 
Plant  six  fat  seeds  and  six  small  seeds  of  corn.  Observe 
the  seedlings.*  (190,  193,  152,  156,  222,  241,  228,  etc.) 

Movements  in  plants:  Observe  the  behavior  of  seedlings 
when  inverted.*  (See  Chapter  XVII.)  The  stem  and  root 
move  upward  and  downward  respectively.  They  seem  to 
know  what  to  do.  Observe  the  behavior  or  position  of 
oxalis,  clover,  or  bean  that  has  been  kept  in  the  dark,  as 
compared  with  one  in  the  light.*  Leave  exposed,  note 
movement.  Observe  the  motion  of  tendrils  and  twining 
plants.*  Observe  the  way  the  seedlings  and  other  window- 
plants  turn  and  grow  toward  the  light.*  Turn  pot  or  box 
around  and  observe  the  motion.  Touch  the  leaflets  of  a 
sensitive  plant  *  and  observe  the  closing  up  and  shrinking 
away  of  the  plant,  and  the  motion  of  quite  distant  parts  that 
were  not  touched.  Can  this  plant  feel?  (190,  164,  212,  196, 
165,  156,  161,  153.) 

FLOWERS:  Mayweed,*  ground-ivy,  purslane,  cheese  mal- 
low, chickweed,  an  umbelliferous  plant  (caraway,*  zizia,* 
carrot,  parsnip,*  in  flower),  five-finger,  wood  sorrel,  Sol- 
omon's-seal.*  Identify  and  study  characteristics  and  uses 
or  harm.  (Keys:  168,  etc., — Weeds:  230,  241,  156,  246 
"Weeds";  read  C.  D.  Warner's  "  My  Summer  in  a  Garden," 
472.)  Make  a  collection  of  weeds,  press,  mount,  and  label. 

TREES:  Distinguish  the  elms,  done  best  by  flower.* 
Review  the  trees  learned  in  previous  years.  What  kinds  are 


498  NATURE-STUbY 

best  adapted  for  shade  trees  ?  Why  ?  Which  are  the  most 
rapid  growers?  Which  are  the  shortest  lived?  Which 
produce  a  litter  with  their  fruit?  Which  are  most  easily 
affected  by  insects  and  drop  their  leaves  during  the  summer  ? 
Which  are  the  most  easily  injured  in  a  storm?  Which  tree 
is  your  favorite?  Why?  Draw  a  sketch  of  it  and  write  an 
essay  on  it  for  Arbor  Day.  (173,  etc.,  220,  219,  22oa.) 

ARBOR  DAY:  Read  up  beforehand  how  to  set  out  a  tree. 
(See  Chapter  XVIII.)  Plant  a  white  elm,  nut,  or  fruit  tree. 
(220,  219,  241,  226,  221,  229.) 

GARDENING  :  Begin  early  to  plan  garden.  Select  seeds  and 
send  for  them.  Choose  from  lists  on  page  295.  Let  the 
boys  engage  in  a  competitive  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet, 
and  the  girls,  too,  if  they  wish,  or  let  them  choose  flowers, 
(chrysanthemums).  Read  up  in  Farmers'  Bulletins  and 
books  about  the  sugar-beet,  and  apply  the  directions.  (Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  52;  books:  222,  223,  241,  226,  230.)  Let 
a  committee  visit  the  beet  plots  and  flower  beds  during  the 
summer,  and  in  the  fall  exhibit  the  results  and  award  prizes. 

Start  seeds  in  cold-frame  or  hot-bed. 

Help  the  lower  grades  prepare  the  garden.  Lay*  out 
class  garden.  (Chapter  XVI.)  Individual  plots,  if  possible, 
also  a  few  general  beds  for  ornamental  plants  or  experimental 
cultures.  Mark  off,  stake  out,  plant,  etc.,  in  season. 

Plant  diseases  and  insects:  Observe.  Read  up,  find 
remedies  and  apply.  (221,  229,  241,  226,  231,  230,  2.46.) 

Set  out  berry  bushes,  vines,  shrubs,  and  perennial  herbs 
for  decoration  or  to  attract  the  birds.  Encourage  pupils 
to  do  this  at  home. 

Lessons  in  pruning.  Give  pupils  the  prunings  to  take 
home  as  cuttings  for  planting. 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         499 

Plant  outside  window-boxes  and  care  for  them.  List 
Chapter  XVI. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

AIM  AND  METHOD:  Read  discussion  at  beginning  of 
seventh  grade  p.  483. 

THROUGHOUT  THE  YEAR 

PHYSIOGRAPHY:*  Systematic  review  of  previous  earth 
study,  illustrated  by  local  features  as  far  as  possible.  Per- 
haps an  elementary  text-book  may  be  used.  The  atmos- 
phere, weathering,  erosion,  sedimentation,  strata,  fossils, 
earth  waters,  igneous  forces,  mountain  formation,  ores  and 
minerals,  economic  resources,  the  coal  period,  coal,  the  ice 
age,  sketch  of  the  development  of  animal  life.  Use  pictures, 
models,  local  illustrations.  Emphasize  the  beauty  and 
grandeur  of  the  earth.  Try  to  get  pupils  to  appreciate  the 
slowness  of  geological  action.  Show  man's  dependence 
upon  the  physiographic  conditions.  Apply  locally  and  to 
other  typical  cases.  Man's  utilizing  the  forces  and  resources 
of  nature.  Talks  on  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  (327, 
336,  328,  326,  346,  343,  348,  344,  475a,  475^  475c,  geog- 
raphies, books  of  travel.) 

PHYSICS:  Common  properties  of  matter,  gravity  (clocks, 
balancing,  falling  bodies,  specific  gravity,  buoyancy).  Make 
very  simple,  avoid  laws  and  formulas.  Base  upon  simple 
experiments. 

Air  pressure,  barometer,*  pumps,*  siphon,*  water  pres- 
sure, city  waterworks,*  capillarity. 

Light :  Review  work  of  last  year.  Take  up  color,  prism,* 
spectrum,*  lenses,*  burning  glass,*  magnifying  glass,  micro- 


500  NATURE-STUDY 

scope,  telescope,  observatories,  camera,*  the  eye.*  Use 
simple  diagrams.  Do  not  try  to  apply  law  of  refraction  or 
find  the  image  with  the  diagrams  except  in  the  simplest 
manner. 

Magnets,*  battery,*  electro  magnet,*  electric  bell,*  tele- 
graph,* telephone,  electric  light,*  electric'  motor,*  electric 
street  car.*  Examine  these  and  note  construction  and  man- 
ner of  operation.  Simple  explanations  are  hard  to  give. 
Do  not  go  into  theory.  Use  simple  analogies,  or  try  not  to 
explain  at  all,  and  simply  be  satisfied  to  show  the  general 
construction  and  the  actual  operation.  Emphasize  rather 
the  practical  utility  of  these  inventions. 

Visit  a  modern  newspaper  printing  press.  Study  the 
history  of  printing. 

References:  Physics:  251,  250,  255,  259,  317,  318,  257, 
258,  260,  261,  249.  Invention:  292,  286,  287,  296,  288,  289, 
285,  321,  316.  Boys'  Books  of  construction  and  experiment- 
ing: 276,  279,  280,  281,  282,  284,  298.  Biography:  405, 
406,  407,  321. 

CHEMISTRY:*  Experimental  study  of  elements,  com- 
pounds, analysis,  air,  water,  constituents  of  each,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  fire,  carbon  dioxide,  sulphur, 
gunpowder,  matches,  illuminating  gas,  kerosene.  Properties 
of  soda,  salt,  ammonia,  muriatic  acid,  soap,  lye. 

Photography:  Teach  the  process  in  a  general  way.  If  a 
dark  room  is  available  teach  developing  and  printing.  Dis- 
cuss in  a  simple  way  the  modern  photomechanical  processes 
— half-tone  and  three-color  photography. 

References:  Chemistry:  270,  273,  263,  264,  269,  262, 
268,  274,  317,  318.  Inventions:  See  physics  above. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:    Systematic  review  of  the 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF   NATURE-STUDY         501 

subject,*  using  perhaps  some  elementary  text-book:  Muscles, 
bones,*  digestion  and  digestive  organs,*  food,  cooking,  blood, 
heart*  and  blood  vessels,  respiration*  and  lungs,  the  relation 
between  food,  respiration,  and  energy.  Exercise,  games. 
Ventilation.* 

Bacteria  and  disease.     Sanitation.     The  Board  of  Health. 

The  eye,*  ear,*  and  other  special  sense  organs.  Nerves 
and  brain,*  their  uses.  Anesthetics,  surgery,  antiseptics. 
The  hospital.  Nursing,  invalid  food,  Emergency  rules. 
Temperance,  smoking.  Illustrate  well  with  observations 
on  body,  with  material  from  the  meat  market,  models, 
diagrams,  pictures,  experiments,  and  possibly  the  dissection 
of  a  frog.  Keep  to  the  simple.  Let  pupils  make  simple 
diagrams. 

References:  380,  370,  381,  38ia,  385,  368a,  373,  368,  371, 
372,  209,  375,  387,  386,  295. 

AUTUMN 
ANIMALS. 

In  connection  with  geography  study  the  distribution  of 
animals  on  the  earth,  tracing  the  causes  that  determine  it. 
Note  particular  adaptations  to  climate,  element,  mode  of 
life.  Consider  typical  animals  of  different  zones  and  also 
the  mountains,  forests,  prairies,  plains,  deserts,  and  the  sea. 
Consider  the  natural  barriers  of  climate,  water  areas,  and 
mountains  in  migration.  Discuss  island  fauna,  taking  the 
typical  animals  of  Australia.  Very  simply  discuss  the  rea- 
son for  this  peculiar  fauna.  (33,  34,  18,  21,  22,  64,  44,  Gil- 
bert and  Brigham's  Physical  Geography,  Redway's  Physical 
Geography,  other  geographies.) 

Study  of  man:    Begin  with  primitive  man.     Discuss  his 


5o2  NATURE-STUDY 

dependence  upon  the  natural  environment.  His  enemies.  His 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  and  how  he  procured  these.  Dis- 
covery of  weapons.  Trace  in  a  simple  way  through  the  Stone 
Age,  the  discovery  of  fire,  of  pottery,  weaving,  domestication 
of  animals,  the  shepherd  stage,  cultivation  of  useful  plants, 
the  importance  of  agriculture  in  developing  civilization,  the 
discovery  of  metals,  invention,  utilization  of  the  forces  of 
nature,  becoming  more  and  more  the  master  of  the  forces 
and  resources  of  nature,  the  age  of  steam,  the  age  of  electric- 
ity. Consider  the  distribution  of  the  races  of  man  and  modes 
of  life  to  adapt  to  climatic  conditions.  Some  famous  migra- 
tions of  races  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  Goths,  the 
Saracens,  the  Angles  and  Saxons  to  England,  the  Huns, 
etc.,  with  some  reference  to  the  present  shifting  of  peoples  on 
the  earth  and  the  reasons  that  impel  them  to  migrate.  Bring 
out  the  dependence  on  nature  in  the  case  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion. (Physical  geographies,  histories  of  civilization.) 

Extinct  races  of  animals:  Begin  with  the  present  destruc- 
tion of  animal  life  by  man.  Refer  to  other  causes  for  extinc- 
tion. Beaver,  bison,  the  great  auk.  Fossils  indicate  what? 
Stories  of  animals  of  the  past.  The  mammoth.  Purpose 
of  our  game  laws.  Why  is  the  closed  season  when  it  is? 
Teach  obedience  to  the  game  and  other  protective  laws. 
Game  wardens.  The  American  Sportsmen's  League,  the 
Audujxm  Society,  Societies  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to 
Animals.  Urge  to  protect  animal  life  not  harmful  to  us. 
(333>  J7i  33>  34,  100,  96,  113,  478.) 

PLANTS. 

GARDENING:  Put  garden  in  order.  Collect  flowers  for 
school-room  decoration.*  Exhibit  flowers  and  produce 


A  GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         503 

grown  at  home  (sugar  beets),  also  art  and  other  work  related 
to  nature-study.  Make  awards.  Exhibit  at  the  county  fair. 
Visit  fair.  Have  a  flower  show. 

Do  fall  pruning,  give  cuttings  away  for  home  growing. 
(221,  229,  241,  222.)  Set  bulbs  for  spring  flowering.  Mulch 
beds  and  protect  roses,  etc.  Clean  up  for  winter. 

FLOWERS:  Study  of  wild  composites.*  Review  sunflower 
type,  dandelion  type,  and  thistle  type.  Collect,  press,  and 
make  a  herbarium  of  autumn  flowers,  reviewing  thus  the 
names  of  all  learned  in  previous  years.  Note  the  abundance 
of  the  composites.  Account  for  it  (seed  dispersal).  Note 
the  beauty  *  of  roadside,  meadow,  swamp,  and  copses.  Dig 
up  some  of  the  root-stalks  and  plant  in  the  school  wild-flower 
garden  or  in  out  of  the  way  corners  of  the  grounds,  along 
fences,  etc.  Plant  some  at  home.  (190,  156,  197,  159,  161, 
462,  475c;  keys:  168,  etc.;  seed  dispersal:  191,  198,  482,  161.) 

FLOWERLESS  PLANTS  :  Collect  ferns,*  mosses,*  liver- 
worts,* Equisetum*  club-mosses,*  algae  (pond  scum,  green 
felt,  Pleurococcus)  and  grow  under  suitable  conditions 
(moisture)  in  the  school-room.  Plant  fern  root-stalks  in 
the  school-garden  and  at  home,  in  rich  soil  with  much  de- 
cayed wood.  Plant  some  in  the  window-boxes  or  in  pots. 
Plant  mosses  around  the  bases  of  the  plants  in  the  window- 
boxes  or  pots.  Put  the  algae  in  aquaria.  Observe  these 
plants  in  the  field.  Note  conditions  of  shade  and  moisture. 
Note  growth  on  logs,  rocks,  etc.  Make  a  simple  study  of 
ferns  and  mosses  (see  seventh  grade  work)  and  in  a  similar 
way  study  the  other  plants. 

Consider  chiefly  the  general  appearance,  the  beauty,  and 
the  habitat,  and  do  very  little  with  the  spores  and  other 
minute  details.  Spores  may  be  shown  in  mass  as  collected 


5o4  NATURE-STUDY 

on  paper.  Perhaps  simple  experiments  in  growing  them 
may  be  tried.  Do  nothing  with  the  prothallial  stages  nor  the 
alternation  of  generations.  Examine  the  pond  scum  with 
a  low-power  compound  microscope.  (193,  152,  156,  159; 

172,  179,  475C-) 

Plant  diseases:  Wheat  rust,  apple  rust,  sunflower  leaf 
rust,  lilac  and  woodbine  leaf  blight,  potato  rot,  corn  smut 
black  knot,  tree  shelf  fungi*  and  toadstools.*  Consider 
chiefly  from  the  economic  standpoint.  Do  very  little  with 
structural  details  not  visible  with  the  naked  eye  or  a  simple 
magnifying  glass.  Spores  may  be  shown  in  mass  on  paper. 
Consider  the  extent  of  damage  done  to  crops  and  trees. 
Read  up  about  remedies,  especially  sprays.  (190,  153,  167, 
180,  220,  231,  230,  221,  241,  226,  etc.,  246  "  Fungicides.") 

WINTER 
PLANTS. 

FORESTRY:  Uses  of  forests:  Fuel,  lumber,  wind-breaks, 
game,  nuts,  and  fruit,  maple  sugar,  paper  pulp,  Christmas 
trees,  telegraph  and  telephone  poles,  fence  posts,  and  ties. 
Importance  in  conserving  the  soil  moisture,  retaining  fertility, 
protecting  the  soil,  controlling  off -flow  and  preventing  floods, 
and  acting  as  reservoirs  for  rivers  and  irrigation  purposes. 
Health  resorts,  scenery.  Discuss  the  enemies  of  forests :  Far- 
mer, lumberman,  etc.,  forest  fires,  browsing  cattle  and  sheep, 
storms,  drought,  injurious  insects,  parasitic  fungi.  Discuss 
the  life-cycle  of  a  tree — youth,  maturity  (how  old),  old  age 
and  decline.  The  use  of  forests  as  a  crop,  conservative 
cutting,  protection,  replanting  or  allowing  natural  reforest- 
ation. How  forests  naturally  reproduce  themselves — cop- 
pice method,  self-sowing.  Show  pictures  or  visit  planted 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         505 

groves — how  started?  Visit  nursery.  Refer  to  the  plant- 
ing on  the  prairies  and  changes  wrought  thereby.  Discuss 
the  amount  of  lumber  still  standing.  Compare  with  former 
times.  Trace  the  decline  of  the  white  pine  industry  in  the 
United  States.  Where  did  it  start?  Where  is  it  to-day? 
What  shall  we  do  when  all  the  forests  are  gone?  Discuss 
what  has  been  done  in  Europe  for  over  a  hundred  years  in  the 
way  of  forest  planting  and  preservation,  and  the  present 
condition  of  forests  started  80  or  100  years  ago.  How  long 
does  it  take  a  forest  crop  to  become  useful  (thirty  years),  how 
long  before  mature?  (80  years.)  Necessity  of  state  or 
national  control.  The  work  of  generations.  Emphasize 
the  need  of  altruism  in  this  work.  Refer  to  the  various  state 
and  national  forest  reserves.  Use  map.  Relation  of  the 
national  reserves  to  irrigation.  Refer  to  national  parks  for 
beauty  of  scenery  and  pleasure  places.  An  interesting  case 
is  the  Sequoia  Reserve  in  California.  Study  these  trees. 
Develop  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  forestry.  Encourage  boys 
to  turn  their  attention  to  it  for  practical  application  on  the 
home  farm  or  for  further  study  for  the  career  of  forester. 
Describe  the  life  and  duties  of  a  German  forester.  Send 
for  Farmers'  bulletins  on  the  subject  of  farm  forestry.  Read 
the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Year-books  on  the  subject,  and  also 
elementary  books  on  agriculture  and  forestry.  Also  read 
magazine  articles.  (220,  219,  218,  217,  222,  223,  226,  228, 
231,  241.)  Consider  the  beauty  of  forests  in  scenery.* 
(216,  214,  475C.) 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANT  VARIETIES  :  Discuss  how  tLu  corn 
crop  may  be  improved  by  selection  of  good  seed.  Descrip- 
tion of  Luther  Burbank  and  his  work.  What  he  has  done 
to  change  and  improve  plants.  (210,  magazines.)  Make 


506  NATURE-STUDY 

very  simple  and  avoid  theory.  (246  "  Good  seed  corn,"  U.  S. 
Agricultural  Year-books.)  Explain  in  an  untechnical  way 
how  hybrids  are  produced,  and  apply  to  horticultural  methods 
of  getting  new  varieties  of  flowers  and  fruits.  (156,  158,  166, 

Experimental  cultivation  of  plants  at  state  and  U.  S. 
Experiment  Stations  to  get  better  producing  varieties,  more 
drought  or  cold  resistant  kinds.  Experiments  in  adapting 
crops  to  special  soils,  climates,  etc.  Refer  to  apple  tests 
(what  kinds  are  the  best  adapted  locally — why?),  macaroni 
wheat,  and  alfalfa.  Why  is  each  variety  specially  suitable 
for  the  region  ?  (U.  S.  Agricultural  Year-books,  State  Agri- 
cultural Reports,  Reports  of  Farmers'  Institutes,  233.)  Discuss 
with  the  map  the  chief  agricultural  or  crop  regions  in  the 
United  States  and  consider  the  special  climatic,  soil,  or  other 
features  to  be  taken  into  account.  (Geographies,  commer- 
cial geographies,  physical  geographies,  U.  S.  Agricultural 
Year-books.  246  "The  Apple  and  how  to  Grow  it." 

INTRODUCTION  OF  FOREIGN  PLANTS  IN  SUITABLE  REGIONS  : 
Orange,  lemon,  figs,  dates,  Siberian  apples,  Russian  semi-arid 
wheat,  Indian  millets,  Japanese  flowers,  Australian  eucalyptus 
trees,  etc.  Most  of  our  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers,  and  grains 
have  been  introduced.  What  are  our  native  useful  plants? 
U.  S.  Agricultural  Year-books;  238;  Willis's  "Practical 
Flora";  213.  Commercial  geographies.) 

GARDENING:  Greenhouse  work.  (See  Chapter  XVI.) 
Layering,  cutting,  grafting,  budding  (roses,  nursery  stock). 
Cross-pollination  by  hand.  Forcing  flowers  and  vegetables. 
Seed  purity  tests.  (221,  229,  241,  222,  226,  232.)  Indoor 
window  culture  in  school-room.  (See  list,  Chapter  XVI. 
235,  221,  229.) 


A   GRADED   COURSE   OF  NATURE-STUDY         507 

Home  reading  of  agricultural  books,  seed  and  nursery 
catalogues,  planning  home  garden.  Send  for  catalogues  of 
state  or  county  agricultural  schools.  Put  them  into  the 
hands  of  boys  and  girls.  Discussion  of  the  aims  and  work 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ANIMALS. 

BREEDING  chickens  and  doves  by  selection.  Discuss 
general  principles.  Apply  same  in  a  general  way  to  stock, 
horses,  etc.,  to  show  how  great  improvement  can  be  made  in 
farm  animals  for  special  purposes.  Apply  to  selection  of 
dairy  stock  and  beef.  (33,  34,  222,  223,  226,  241.  U.  S. 
Agricultural  Year-books.) 

SPRING 

BIRDS  :  *  General  review  of  the  facts  of  bird  life  pre- 
viously learned.  Structure  and  adaptation  of  body,  plu- 
mage, wings,*  feet,*  bills.*  Protective  and  mating  colors. 
Listing  of  useful  and  harmful  birds.  Discussion  of  the 
food  of  birds.  Identification  of  all  birds  previously  learned, 
and  the  vireos,  summer  yellowbird,  Maryland  yellow- 
throat,  black  and  white  creeper,  and  redstart.  Character- 
istics of  warblers  as  a  class.  Classify  all  the  birds  learned 
into  orders:  Swimmers  and  Divers,  Shore  birds  and 
Waders,  Scratching  Birds,  Birds  of  Prey,  Song  and  Perch- 
ing Birds  (and  these  again  into  Families).  Visit  a  museum 
and  observe  the  relationships  as  shown  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  specimens.  Visit  a  zoological  garden.  (95  to  125. 
Also  33,  34,  36,  47,  54.) 

Encourage  children  to  read  bird  magazines.  Give  books 
to  take  home.  Encourage  interest  in  bird  study,  but  check 


5o8  NATURE-STUDY 

unnecessary  or  unpromising  egg-collecting  and  shooting. 
Read  from  Audubon,  Burroughs,  Torrey,  Miller,  etc.  De- 
velop love  and  protection  for  birds.  Encourage  formation  of 
Audubon  society.  Discuss  the  work  done  by  this  society. 
Discourage  the  use  of  plumage.  Show  the  girls  the  cruelty 
of  it.  How  we  may  attract  the  birds  to  our  homes.  (Chap. 
X,  479>  478>  TI3>  JI7>  Io8>  I09-) 

PLANTS. 

FLOWERS:  Review  of  the  plants*  learned  in  previous 
grades.  Collect,  press,  and  mount  in  herbarium.  Do  not 
waste  flowers.  Dig  up  wild  flowers  and  place  them  in  school 
or  home  garden.  Note  peculiar  habitats,  adaptations,  type 
of  flower,  and  peculiar  adaptations  of  the  flowers,  fruit  and 
seed  dispersal,  economic  value.  (168  to  187,  190  to  215.) 

Make  a  comparative  study*  of  the  following  families, 
noting  similarity  in  flower,  fruit,  etc. — a  family  likeness : 

Crowfoot  Family:  Marsh  marigold,  buttercup,  hepatica, 
windflower,  columbine. 

Mustard  Family :  Shepherd's-purse,  sweet  alyssum,  candy- 
tuft, horseradish,  radish,  cabbage,  turnip,  field  mustard. 

Violet  Family:  Blue,  yellow,  and  white  violets,  cultivated 
violet,  pansy. 

Pea  Family :  Sweet  pea,  garden  pea,  bean,  vetch,  ground- 
plum,  red  clover,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  melilot,  prairie  clover, 
wistaria,  locust,  peanut,  sensitive  plant. 

Rose  Family:  Wild  and  cultivated,  plum,  cherry,  peach, 
spirea,  fivefinger,  strawberry,  raspberry,  blackberry,  haw- 
thorne,  pear,  apple,  mountain  ash. 

Gourd  Family:  Cucumber,  squash,  pumpkin,  watermelon, 
musk  melon,  gourds. 


A  GRADED   COURSE  OF  NATURE-STUDY         509 

Parsley  Family:  Parsnip,  caraway,  celery,  carrot,  wild 
carrot,  zizia.* 

Composite  Family:  Sunflower,  dandelion,  thistle,  cultivated 
and  wild  asters,  goldenrod,  daisy,  fleabane,  marguerite, 
eupatory,  blazing  star,  fireweed,  lettuce,  prickly  lettuce,  ever- 
lasting, ragweed,  cocklebur,  burdock,  zinnia,  coneflower, 
golden  glow,  marigold,  bur  marigold,  dahlia,  coreopsis, 
cosmos,  mayweed,  tansy,  bachelor's  button,  etc. 

Do  not  go  into  details  further  than  to  be  able  to  see  the 
similarities  and  the  family  likenesses.  Do  not  emphasize 
the  classification  nor  make  it  technical.  Do  not  try  to  de- 
fine the  family  characteristics.  Let  the  work  be  largely  ob- 
servational, and  let  the  plants  be  placed  side  by  side  in 
groups,  so  that  the  children  may  see  the  relationships. 
Let  the  children  arrange  their  herbaria  according  to  this 
classification.  (152  to  166,  191,  193,  197,  200,  215.) 

GARDENING  AND  AGRICULTURE:  Nursery  work,  pruning 
vines,  shrubs,  trees,  setting  out  trees,  shrubs  or  perennials, 
water  gardening.  (221,  229,  222,  226,  241,  etc.) 

Preparing  and  applying  fertilizers,  sprays  for  insects  and 
fungi.  Encourage  home  gardening,  tree  planting,  berry 
shrub  planting,  etc.  Give  from  surplus  of  plants  raised 
in  school  garden.  (221,  229,  226,  241,  etc.) 

Encourage  ownership  and  care  of  garden  at  home,  of 
poultry,  squabs,  sheep,  calves,  cows,  colts,  etc.  Apply  the 
principles  learned  at  school. 

Arbor  Day:  Set  out  hard  maple — or  some  other  tree, 
shrub,  vine,  or  perennial.  (220,  219,  221,  229,  241,  226.) 

Teach  the  elements  of  landscape  gardening.  (221,  229, 
224,  222,  226,  etc.) 

Develop  interest  in  school-ground  improvement,  home  and 


5io  NATURE-STUDY 

civic  improvement.    Make  a  study  of  the  beautification  plans 
of  the  city. 

This  class  can  be  employed  in  making  seats,  rustic  gates 
and  fences,  arbors,  arches,  urns,  etc.,  for  the  garden.  The 
general  supervision  and  preservation  of  the  order  and  beauty 
of  the  grounds  may  be  left  to  them.  (246,  221,  229,  224,  222.) 


APPENDIX 

PRIMARY  INFORMATION  BOOKS  AND  NATURE  STORIES 

More  or  less  adapted,  and  more  or  less  true.  For  grades 
from  the  Kindergarten  to  the  Fourth  inclusive.  Arranged 
by  topics.  ' 

A.  BOOKS  THAT  CONTAIN  SOMETHING  ON  ALMOST  EVERY  NATURE 

TOPIC: 

1.  The  Child's  World:  Poulson. 

2.  The  Story  Hour:  Wiggin  and  Smith. 

3.  Five  Minute  Stories:  Richards. 

4.  The  Plan  Book:  George. 

5.  Month  by  Month:  Willis  and  Farmer. 

6.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

7.  Friends  and  Helpers:  Eddy. 

8.  All  the  Year  Round:  Strong. 

9.  Through  the  Year:  Clyde  and  Wallace. 
10.  The  Outdoor  World:  Furneaux. 

n.  Cat  Tails  and  Other  Tales:   Howliston. 

12.  Story  of  Woods  and  Fields:  Brown. 

13.  Outdoorland:  Chambers. 

14.  Orchardland:  Chambers. 

15.  Land  and  Water  Friends:  Bamford. 

16.  Lookabout  Club:  Bamford. 

17.  Talks  about  Queer  People:  Bamford. 

B.  ANIMALS  IN  GENERAL: 

1.  Four  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet:   Richards. 

2.  Claws  and  Hoofs:  Johonnot. 

3.  Feathers,  Fur,  and  Fins:  Cheney. 

4.  Little  Friends  in  Feathers  and  Fur:   Miller. 


5i2  NATURE-STUDY 

5.  Funny  Friends:  Miller. 

6.  About  Animals:  Carter. 

7.  Familiar  Animals:  Monteith. 

8.  Some  Useful  Animals:  Monteith. 

9.  Living  Creatures:  Monteith. 

10.  Short  Stories  about  Shy  Neighbors:   Kelly. 

11.  Animal  Ways  and  Claims:   Carrington. 

12.  Aunt  Louisa's  Book  of  Animal  Stories:   Valentine. 

13.  Little  Beasts:  Cram. 

14.  Sea  (Animal)  Stories:  Hardy. 

15.  Beasts  and  Birds:  Wright. 

16.  Story  of  Little  Fishes:  M  tiller. 

17.  Story  of  Little  Animals.     (Phyllis  Books):    Mulcts, 

18.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

19.  Natural  History:  Miles. 

20.  Book  of  Natural  History.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

21.  Book  of  Animal  Stories.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

C.  CATS  AND  DOGS  AND  OTHER  PETS: 

1.  List  A,  Nos.  i  to  7. 

2.  Petland:  Wood. 

3.  Petland  Revisited:  Wood. 

4.  Cat  Stories  (from  St.  Nicholas) :  Carter. 

5.  Friends  and  Helpers:  Eddy. 

6.  Cats  and  Dogs:  Johonnot. 

7.  Letters  from  a  Cat:   H.  H.  Jackson. 

8.  Crib  and  Fly.     (Two  dogs):  Dale. 

9.  Sofat  and  Mewmew.     (Cat  and  dog):  Craik. 

10.  Familiar  Animals:  Monteith. 

11.  Our  Home  Pets:  Miller. 

12.  Beautiful  Joe:  Saunders. 

13.  Duke:  Flanagan. 

14.  St.  Nicholas. 

15.  See  also  List  B,  i,  6,  21,  etc. 

D.  HORSE,  Cow,  SHEEP,  ETC. 

1.  List  A,  i  to  7. 

2.  Life  on  a  Farm:  B  radish. 

3.  Familiar  Animals:  Monteith. 

4.  Useful  Animals:  Monteith. 

5.  Horse  and  Other  Animal  Stories:  Cassells. 

6.  Black  Beauty:  Sewell. 

7.  List  B,  i,  6,  n,  2,  21,  etc. 


APPENDIX '  513 


E.  SMALL  WILD  ANIMALS: 


1.  Story  of  Little  Animals.     (Phyllis  Books):   Mulcts. 

2.  Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur:   Miller. 

3.  Beasts  and  Birds:  Wright. 

4.  Friends  and  Helpers:  Eddy. 

5.  Short  Stories  of  Shy  Neighbors:  Kelly. 

6.  Little  Beasts:  Cram. 

7.  Familiar  Animals:  Monteith. 

8.  Four  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet:  Richards. 

9.  Funny  Friends:  Miller. 

10.  Animal  Stories:  Carter. 

11.  Talks  about  Animals.     (From  Youth's  Companion.) 

12.  Squirrels  and  other  Furbearers:   Burroughs. 

13.  See  also  List  A,  i  to  7,  etc.     Also  List  B,  3,  n,  12,  18,  19,  20,  21 

14.  Animal  Pictures  from  Life.     Rand,  McNally. 

15.  Birds  and  Nature. 

1 6.  Animal  Chart:   Mumford. 

17.  For  pictures,  see  General  Reference  List,  Natural  Histories. 

18.  St.  Nicholas. 

F.  LARGE  WILD  MAMMALS: 

1.  Claws  and  Hoofs:  Johonnot. 

2.  Familiar  Animals:  Monteith. 

3.  Four-Footed  Americans:  Wright. 

4.  Funny  Friends:  Miller. 

5.  Animal  Life:  Cooper. 

6.  Natural  History:  Miles. 

7.  Book  of  Natural  History.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

8.  Animal  Story  Book.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

9.  Ways  of  the  Wood  Folk:   Long. 

10.  Four  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet:   Richards, 
n.  About  Animals:  Carter. 

12.  List  A,  i  to  7. 

13.  List  E,  14,  16,  17,  18. 

G.  POULTRY: 

1.  Feathers  and  Fur:  Johonnot. 

2.  Friends  and  Helpers:  Eddy. 

3.  Four  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet:   Richards. 

4.  Feathers,  Fur,  and  Fins:  Cheney. 

5.  Animal  Stories  (from  St.  Nicholas) :   Carter. 

6.  See  List  Q,  Farm  Life. 

7.  See  List  A,  i  to  7.     List  B,  19-21. 


514  NATURE-STUDY 

8.  St.  Nicholas, 
g.  Birds  and  Nature. 
10.  Fanners'  Bulletins,  General  Reference  List,  No.  246. 

H.  WILD  BIRDS: 

1.  Story  of  Birds.     (Phyllis  Books):  Mulcts. 

2.  Birds  and  Beasts:  Wright. 

3.  Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur:  Miller. 

4.  Four  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet:   Richards. 

5.  First  Book  of  Birds:  Miller. 

6.  Second  Book  of  Birds:  Miller. 

7.  Funny  Friends:  Miller. 

8.  Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass:   Merriam. 

9.  Birdworld:  Stickney. 
10.  Birdlife:  Weed. 

n.  History  of  the  Robins:  Trimmer. 

12.  See  List  A,  i  to  7.     List  B,  19,  20,  21. 

13.  See  General  Reference  List — Birds. 

14.  Birds  and  Nature,  Bird-Lore,  St.  Nicholas. 

15.  Bird  Pictures  for  Identification : 

Bird  Chart  (Colored):  Mumford. 

Audubon  Bird  Chart  (Prang  Educational  Co.). 

Bird-Lore  Bird  Chart. 

Bird  Neighbors.    (Colors):   Blanchan. 

Birds  that  Hunt  and  are  Hunted.     (Colors) :     Blanchan 

Colored  Pictures  of  Birds:  Mumford. 

I.  FROGS,  TOADS,  FISH,  ETC.: 

1.  See  List  A,  i  to  6. 

2.  Friends  and  Helpers:  Eddy. 

3.  Living  Creatures:  Monteith. 

4.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

5.  Story  of  the  Little  Fishes:   Miiller. 

6.  Animal  Life;  Cooper. 

7.  Natural  History:  Miles. 

8.  Book  of  Natural  History.     Young  Folks  Library. 

9.  List  A,  10,  ii,  15,  I3.     Also  List  B,  5,  n,  14. 
10.  St.  Nicholas. 

J.  INSECTS,  SPIDERS: 

1.  Wings  and  Stings:  Doulton. 

2.  Butterflies  and  Bees:  Morley. 


APPENDIX    '  515 

3.  Insect  Folk:  Morlev. 

4.  The  Bee  People:  Morley. 

5.  Wasps  and  their  Ways:  Morley. 

6.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

7.  Buzbuz:  Pratt. 

8.  Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins:  Johonnot. 

9.  Insect  Story.     (Phyllis  Books):  Mulcts. 

10.  Buz:  N6el. 

11.  List  A,  i  to  7,  10,  13,  15,  16.     List  B,  9,  n,  19-21. 

12.  For  Identification,  etc.,  see  General  Reference  List — Insects 

K.  PLANTS  IN  GENERAL: 

1.  Plants  and  their  Children:  Dana. 

2.  Botany  All  the  Year  Round:  Andrews. 

3.  First  Studies  in  Botany:  Atkinson. 

4.  Short  Stories  in  Botany  for  Young  Children:   Cooper. 

5.  Outlines  in  Botany— I  and  II:  Newell. 

6.  Readers  in  Science:   Murche. 

7.  Flowers  and  their  Friends:  Morley. 

8.  Seed  Dispersal:  Beal. 

9.  Seed  Babies:  Morley. 

10.  Little  Wanderers:  Morley. 

11.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

12.  See  List  A,  i  to  6. 

13.  Birds  and  Nature,  St.  Nicholas. 

L.  TREES,  LEAVES,  BUDS: 

1.  Tree  Story.     (Phyllis  Books):  Mulcts. 

2.  Tree  Stories:  Miiller. 

3.  Ten  Common  Trees:  Stokes. 

4.  Through  the  Year:  Clyde  and  Wallace. 

5.  All  the  Year  Round:  Strong. 

6.  List  K,  i  to  6. 

7.  For  Identification,  etc.,  see  General  Reference  List — Trees. 

8.  List  A,  i  to  6. 

9.  Trees  in  Prose  and  Poetry:   Stone  and  Pickett. 

M.  WILD  FLOWERS: 

1.  Flower  Story.     (Phyllis  Books):   Mulcts. 

2.  Flowers  and  their  Friends:   Morley. 

3.  Plants  and  their  Children:  Dana. 

4.  Botany  All  the  Year  Round:  Andrews. 


5i6  NATURE-STUDY 

5.  Outlines  in  Botany,  II:  Newell. 

6.  For  Identification,  etc.,  see  General  Reference  List — Plants, 

1 68,  etc. 

7.  See  List  A,  i  to  6,  etc. 

N.  FRUIT,  NUTS,  SEED  DISPERSAL: 

1.  Plants  and  their  Children:  Dana. 

2.  Seed  Babies:  Morley. 

3.  Outlines  of  Botany,  I  and  II:   Newell. 

4.  Botany  All  the  Year  Round:  Andrews. 

5.  First  Studies  in  Botany:  Atkinson. 

6.  Botany.  Bergen. 

7.  Little  Wanderers.     (Seeds):  Morley. 

8.  Seed  Dispersal:  Beal. 

9.  Mother  Nature's  Children:  Gould. 

10.  Through  the  Year:  Clyde  and  Wallace, 
n.  All  the  Year  Round:  Strong. 

12.  Foods  and  their  Uses:  F.  O.  Carpenter. 

13.  How  We  are  Fed:   Chamberlain. 

14.  St.  Nicholas  and  Birds  and  Nature. 

15.  See  List  A,  i  to  7,  14.     List  K,  4,  6. 

16.  General  Reference  List,  154,  155,  160,  161,  213,  238  are  useful. 

O.  TROPICAL  FRUITS,  ETC.: 

1.  Under  Sunny  Skies:  Ginn. 

2.  From  Lands  of  Sunshine:  Riggs. 

3.  Children  of  the  Palm  Lands:  Allen. 

4.  See  others  of  List  T. 

5.  Birds  and  Nature. 

6.  Information  Readers:  Clifford. 

7.  Elementary    Geographies:      Dodge,    Fairbanks,    Frye,    King, 

Tarr  and  McMurry. 

8.  Geographical  and  Popular  Magazines. 

9.  See  List  A,  i  to  5. 

P.  VEGETABLES  AND  FARM  PRODUCTS  (GRAIN,  CORN,  ETC.): 

1.  Seed  Catalogues. 

2.  See  Lists  R  and  S. 

3.  See  Elementary  Geographies — List  O,  7. 

4.  List  N,  12  and  13. 

5.  List  K,  i,  2,  4,  6. 

6.  List  A,  i  to  5. 


APPENDIX  517 

Q.  GARDENING,  OUTDOORS  AND  INDOORS: 

1.  Many  suggestions  in  pedagogical  journals,  especially  in  Nature- 

Study  Review;  Elementary  School  Teacher,  Teachers  College 
Record. 

2.  Also  many  suggestions  in  Farm  Journals,  Women's  Home  Com- 

panion, Ladies'  Home  Journal,  Country  Life,  St.  Nicholas. 

3.  Seed  Catalogues  of  Vick,  Maule,  etc.,  have  practical  suggestions. 

4.  Mary's  Garden  and  How  it  Grew:     Duncan. 

5.  Outline  for  School  Garden.     (Hyannis  Normal  School):  Brown. 

6.  Miniature  and  Window  Gardening:   Allen  and  Godfrey. 

7.  How  to  Make  a  School  Garden:    Hemenway. 

8.  The  Practical  Garden  Book:   Bailey  and  Hunn. 

9.  Garden  Making:  Bailey. 

10.  Little  Gardens:  Skinner. 

11.  See  other  books  on  the  General  Reference  List — Agricultural 

and  Gardening. 

12.  What  Shall  We  Do  Now?     Page  259:    Lucas. 

13.  See  Agricultural  Bulletins,  General  Reference  List,  No   246. 

R.  FARM  LIFE  AND  FARM  INDUSTRY: 

1.  Story  of  Country  Life:  B radish. 

2.  On  the  Farm:  Parker  and  Helm. 

3.  Playtime  and  Seedtime:   Parker  and  Helm. 

4.  Harold's  Rambles:  Troeger. 

5.  A  Boy  on  a  Farm:   Abbott. 

6.  Alice  and  Tom:  Brown. 

7.  Sandman's  Farm  Stories,  2  vols. :   Hopkins. 

8.  List  A,  i  to  5,  13. 

9.  Through  the  Farmyard  Gate:   Poulson. 

10.  Life  on  the  Farm:    Shepard. 

11.  Elementary  Agriculture:   Hatch  and  Hazlewood. 

12.  First  Principles  of  Agriculture:    Goff  and  Mayne. 

S.  FOOD,  CLOTHING  AND  SHELTER,  FIRE: 

1.  Industrial  Readers:  F.  O.  Carpenter. 

2.  How  We  are  Fed:   Chamberlain. 

3.  How  We  are  Clothed:   Chamberlain. 

4.  How  We  are  Sheltered:    Chamberlain. 

5.  Information  Readers:    Clifford. 

6.  Industries  of  To-Day:    Chase  and  Clow. 

7.  Science  Readers:  Murche. 

8.  Story  of  the  Land  of  Sunshine:    Riggs. 

9.  Industries  of  To-Day:    Lane. 


5i8  NATURE-STUDY 

10.  Some  Useful  Animals:   Monteith. 

11.  Tree  Men,  Cave  Men  (2  vols.),  Tent  Dwellers:  Dopp. 

12.  List  A,  i  to  5. 

T.  OCCUPATIONS  AND  INDUSTRIES: 

1.  Industrial  Readers:  F.  O.  Carpenter. 

2.  Stories  of  Industry:    Chase  and  Clow. 

3.  Great  American  Industries:    Flanagan. 

4.  Information  Readers:    Clifford. 

5.  How  We  are  Fed,  Clothed,  and  Sheltered  (3  vols.):  Chamberlain. 

6.  Readers  in  Science:  Murche. 

^7.  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry:   Rocheleau. 

8.  Elementary    Geographies:     Dodge,    Frye,     King,    Tarr    and 

McMurry. 

9.  See  List  A,  i  to  5. 

10.  Industrial-Social  Education:  Baldwin. 

U.  PRIMITIVE  LIFE.    INDIANS: 

1.  The  Tree  Dwellers:  Dopp. 

2.  The  Cave  Dwellers  (2  vols.):   Dopp. 

3.  The  Tent  Dwellers:  Dopp. 

4.  Ten  Little  Boys  on  the  Road  of  Long  Ago:  Andrews. 

5.  Indian  Child-life:  Deming. 

6.  Red  Folk  and  White  Folk:   Deming. 
7:  Hiawatha  (prose)  Primer:   Holbrook. 

8.  In  Field  and  Pasture:   Dutton. 

9.  Hunting  and  Fishing:  Dutton. 

10.  The  Story  of  Ab.     (Adapted):   Waterloo. 

11.  Robinson  Crusoe.     (Adapted):  De  Foe. 

12.  Seven  Little  Sisters:  Andrews. 

V.  HOME  GEOGRAPHY  AND  EARTH  STUDY: 

1.  Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades:   Fairbanks. 

2.  Home  Geography:  Dutton. 

3.  Story  of  Our  Mother  Earth:   Fairbanks. 

4.  Home  Geography:  Troeger. 

5.  Longmans'  Pictorial  Geography  Reader. 

6.  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins:   Frye. 

7.  Elementary  Geography:  Dodge. 

8.  Elementary  Geography:  King. 

9.  Elementary  Geography:   Tarr  and  McMurry. 

10.  Wonders  of  the  Earth,  Sea,  and  Sky.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

11.  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry:   Rocheleau. 


APPENDIX  519 

W.  PEOPLE  IN  OTHER  LANDS: 

1.  Seven  Little  Sisters:  Andrews. 

2.  Ten  Boys  of  Long  Ago:   Andrews. 

3.  People  of  Other  Lands:   Shaw. 

4.  The  World  and  Its  People:   Dunton. 

5.  Around  the  World:  Carroll. 

6.  Little  Folks  in  Many  Lands:    Chase. 

7.  Five  Little  Strangers:  Schwartz. 

8.  Children  of  the  World.     Educational  Pub.  Co. 

9.  Little  People  of  the  Sun:   Miiller. 

10.  Under  Sunny  Skies:    Ginn. 

11.  Stories  from  the  Land  of  Sunshine:   Riggs. 

12.  Children  of  the  Palm  Lands:   Allen. 

13.  Eskimo  Stories:  Smith. 

14.  The  Snow  Baby:  Peary. 

15.  St.  Nicholas,  Youth's  Companion. 

X.  WEATHER,  WIND,  RAIN,  SNOW,  ICE,  FROST,  MONTHS  AND  SEASONS: 

1.  Nature  Study:   Mrs.  Wilson. 

2.  See  List  V,  Home  Geography. 

3.  Mother  Nature's  Children:   Gould. 

4.  Science  Readers:  Murche. 

5.  Calendar  Stories:  Boyle. 

6.  Book  of  Nature  Myths:  Holbrook. 

7.  Nature  Myths:  Cooke. 

8.  List  A,  i  to  5,  ii. 

9.  For  poems — Posy  Ring  and  Golden  Numbers:    Wiggin  and 

Smith.     Also  Beeson's  Child's  Calendar  Beautiful. 

Y.  SKY,  STARS,  SUN,  MOON: 

1.  Stories  of  Starland:   Proctor. 

2.  Nature  Study:    Mrs.  Wilson. 

3.  Storyland  of  Stars:   Pratt. 

4.  Easy  Star  Lessons:  Proctor. 

5.  Overhead:  Nichols. 

6.  Wonders  of  Earth,  Sea,  and  Sky.     Young  Folks'  Library. 

7.  Nature  Myths:  Cooke. 

8.  Stars  in  Story  and  Legend:   Porter. 

9.  Book  of  Nature  Myths:   Holbrook. 

10.  See  List  A,  i  to  5. 

11.  For  Poems:   List  X,  9. 


52o  NATURE-STUDY 

Z.  HEALTH,  PHYSIOLOGY: 

1.  Good  Health:  Jewett. 

2.  Town  and  City:  Jewett. 

3.  Child's  Book  of  Health:   Blaisdell. 

4.  How  to  Keep  Well:   Blaisdell. 

5.  How  to  Teach  Physiology:   Blaisdell. 

6.  Primary  and  Intermediate  Physiologies:   Overtoil. 

7.  Primary  Physiology:  Baldwin. 

8.  See  General  Reference  List,  368,  etc. 


GENERAL  REFERENCE  LIST 

P  indicates    books  adapted  for  primary  grades,  or  useful  for  the 
teacher;    I,  for  intermediate;  G,  for  grammar. 

Nature  Study  Methods 

1.  Arnold's  Waymarks  for  Teachers.     Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 

2.  Bailey:  The  Nature  Study  Idea.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

3.  Hodge:  Nature  Study  and  Life.     Ginn  &  Co. 

4.  Jackman:   Nature  Study.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

5.  Jackman:  Nature  Study  for  Grammar  Grades.     Macmillan 

Co. 

6.  Lange:   Nature  Study  Handbook.     Macmillan  Co. 

7.  Ricks:   Object  Lessons.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

8.  Salmon:   Object  Lessons.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

9.  Scott:  Nature  Study.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

10.  Wilson:  Nature  Study  for  Elementary  Schools.  Macmillan 

Co. 

IT.  McMurry:  Special  Methods  in  Elementary  Science.  Mac- 

millan Co. 

12.  Baldwin:  Industrial-Social  Education.     Milton  Bradley  Co. 

13.  Lloyd    and    Bigelow:    Teaching    of   Biology.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 

14.  Jackman:   Field  Work  in  Nature  Study.     Flanagan. 

Zoology 

TEXT-BOOKS,    NATURAL    HISTORIES,  AND    IDENTIFICATION 
BOOKS: 

15.  G    Colton:   Zoology.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

1 6.  Hertwig-Kingsley:   Manual  of  Zoology.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

17.  I,  G    Hornaday:    Natural  History.     Scribners. 

18.  G    Jordan,  Heath  and  Kellogg:  Animals.     Appletons. 

19.  Jordan:    Manual  of  the  Vertebrates.     (Key.)     McClurg   & 

Co. 

20.  G    Riverside  Natural  History.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

21.  I,  G    Kellogg:   Elementary  Zoology.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

22.  G    Thomson:    Outlines  of  Zoology.     Appletons. 

521 


522  NATURE-STUDY 

23.  I,  G  Wood:    Natural  History. 

24.  G  Marshall:  The  Frog  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

25.  I,  G  Ingersoll:   The  Life  of  Animals.     Macmillan  Co. 

26.  I,  G  Boys'   Book  of  Natural  History.     Young  Folks'   Library. 

Hall  &  Locke. 

27.  I,  G  Animal  Stories.     Young  Folks'  Library.     Hall   &  Locke. 

28.  I,  G  The  People's  Natural  History.     University  Society. 

29.  All  Miles:  Natural  History.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

30.  I,  G  Sherren:  Popular  History  of  Animals.     Lippincott. 

31.  I,  G  Wright:    Four-Footed  Americans.     Macmillan  Co. 

32.  I,  G  Harvey:   Introduction  to  Zoology.     American  Book  Co. 

33.  I,  G  Linville  and  Kelly:  Zoology.     Ginn  &  Co. 

34.  I,  G  Davenport:   Zoology.     Macmillan  Co. 

General  Zoology 

35.  I,  G  Baskett:    Reptiles  and  Amphibians.     Appletons. 

36.  G  Buckley:   Winners  of  Life's  Race.     Appletons. 

37.  I,  G  Burroughs:    Squirrels  and  Other  Furbearers.     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co. 

38.  G  Cooper:  Animal  Forms.     American  Book  Co. 

39.  I  Conn:   Method  of  Evolution.     Putnams. 

40.  G  Flower:  The  Horse.     Appletons. 

41.  G  Goode:  American  Fishes.     Estes  &  Lauriat. 

42.  *P,  I  Baskett:   Story  of  the  Fishes.     Appletons. 

43.  G  Heilprin:   Distribution  of  Animal  Life.     Appletons. 

44.  G  Hornaday:  Taxidermy  and  Zoological  Collecting.    Scribners. 

45.  G  Jordan  and  Eve rmann :   American  Food  and  Game  Fishes. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

46.  I,  G  Kellogg:  First  Lessons  in  Zoology.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

47.  G  Lane:  All  about  Dogs.     J.  Lane. 

48.  G  Baskett:   Story  of  the  Fishes.     Appletons. 

49.  I,  G  McCarthy:  Familiar  Fishes.     Appletons. 

50.  Metcalf:    Outline  of  Organic  Evolution.     Macmillan  Co. 

51.  P,  I  Monteith:     Familiar    Animals    and    their  Wild    Kindred. 

American  Book  Co. 

52.  P,  I  Monteith:   Some  Useful  Animals.     American  Book  Co. 

53.  Morris:  Man  and  His  Ancestors.     Macmillan  Co. 

54.  Poulton:  Colors  of  Animals.     Appleton. 

55.  I,  G  Porter:  Wild  Beasts.     Scribners. 

56.  G  Roosevelt,  Van  Dyke,  etc.,  The  Deer  Family. 

57.  I,  G  Rice:   Animals.     Stone  &  Co. 

58.  Romanes:  Animal  Intelligence.    Paul,  Trench,  Truebner  & 

Co. 


APPENDIX  523 

59.  All  Burkett:  Our  Domestic  Animals.     Ginn  &  Co. 

60.  G  Shaler:   Domesticated  Animals.     Scribners. 

61.  All  Seton:   Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known.     Scribners. 

62.  I,  G  Seton:   Lives  of  the  Hunted.     Scribners. 

63.  All  Stone  and  Cram:  American  Animals.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
'64.  Thomson:   Animal  Life.     Scribners. 

65.  Seton:  Animal  Heroes.     Scribners. 

66.  All  Cram:  Little  Beasts.     Small,  Maynard. 

67.  I,  G  Long:  Ways  of  the  Woodfolk.     Ginn  &  Co. 

68.  I,  G  Long:  Wilderness  Ways.     Ginn  &  Co. 

69.  I,  G  Long:   Secrets  of  the  Woods.     Ginn  &  Co. 

70.  I,  G  Long:   Little  Brother  of  the  Bear.     Ginn  &  Co. 

71.  I,  G  Long:   School  of  the  Woods.     Ginn  &  Co. 

72.  I,  G  Long:  Following  the  Deer.     Ginn  &  Co. 

73.  All  Eddy:  Friends  and  Helpers.     Ginn  &  Co. 

74.  All  Seton:  Lobo,  Rag,  and  Vixen.     Scribners. 

75.  I,  G  Sharpe:   Wild  Life  Near  Home.     Century  Co. 

76.  P,  I  Wright:   Birds  and  Beasts.     Macmillan  Co. 

77.  I,  G  Cornish:  Animals  at  Work  and  at  Play. .  Macmillan  Co. 

78.  G  Ingersoll:  Wild  Neighbors.     Macmillan  Co. 

79.  P,  I  Johonnot:  Feathers  and  Fur.     American  Book  Co. 

80.  P,  I  Johonnot:   Claws  and  Hoofs.     American  Book  Co. 

81.  P,  I  Johonnot:  Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins.   American  Book 

Co. 

82.  All  Seton:  Krag  and  Johnny  Bear.     Scribners. 

83.  P,  I  Miller:  Funny  Friends.     Dutton. 

84.  P,  I  Monteith:  Living  Creatures.     American  Book  Co. 

85.  G  French:   Animal  Activities.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

86.  G  Buckley:   Life  and  Her  Children.     Appletons. 

87.  I,  G  Emerton:   Life  on  the  Seashore.     Bates. 

88.  All  Hardy:   Hall  of  Shells.     Ginn  &  Co. 

89.  All  Hardy:   Sea  (Animal)  Stories.     Ginn  &  Co. 

90.  G  Heilprin:   Animal  Life  on  the  Seashore.     Lippincott. 

91.  G  Mayer:    Seashore  Life.     Barnes. 

92.  Deane:  The  Wonders  of  the  Sea  and  Shore.     Lothrop. 

93.  G  Furneaux:  Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams.     Longmans,  Green 

&Co. 

94.  G  What  Mr.  Darwin  Saw.     Harpers. 

Birds 
KEYS: 

95.  G  Apgar:  Birds  of  the  United  States.     American  Book  Co. 

96.  G  Bailey:  Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  the  Western  United  States. 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


524  NATURE-STUDY 

97.  Baird,  Brewer,  Ridgeway:    North  American  Birds.    3  vols. 

Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

98.  All    Blanchan:   Bird  Neighbors.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

99.  All    Blanchan:   Game  Birds.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

100.  G    Chapman:  Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America. 

Appletons. 

101.  G    Chapman  and  Reed:    Color  Key  to  North  American  Birds. 

Appletons. 

102.  G    Grant:     Our  Common  Birds,  and  How  to  Know  Them. 

Scribners. 

103.  G    Reed:    North  American  Birds' Eggs.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

104.  P,  I    Audubon  Bird  Chart.     Prang  Educational  Co. 

105.  All    Mumford:   Bird  Chart.     (Colored.)     Mountjoy. 

106.  G    Wright:   Bird  Craft.     Macmillan  Co. 

GENERAL: 

107.  Babcock:  Bird  Day.     Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 

108.  I,  G  Baskett:    Story  of  the  Birds.     Appletons. 

109.  I,  G  Blanchan:  How  to  Attract  the  Birds.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
no.  I,  G  Eckstrom:  The  Woodpeckers.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
in.  I,  G  Dugmore:   Bird  Homes.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

112.  I,  G    Herrick:   Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds.     Putnams. 

113.  All    Lange:  Our  Native  Birds.     (Protection.)     Macmillan  Co. 

114.  P,  I    Miller:  First  and  Second  Books  of  Birds.    Houghton,  Mifflin 

&Co. 

115.  All    Merriam:  Birds  Through  an  Opera  Glass.    Houghton,  Miff- 

lin &  Co. 

1 1 6.  All    Merriam:    Birds  of  Village  and  Field.     Houghton,  Mifflin 

&  Co. 

117.  P,  I    Stickney:   Bird  World.     Ginn  &  Co. 

118.  G    Sanford,  Bishop,  VanDyke:  The  Waterfowl.    Macmillan  Co. 

119.  P,  I    Torrey:  Everyday  Birds.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

120.  G    Weed  and  Dearborn:  Birds  in  Relation  to  Man.    Lippincott. 

121.  P    Weed:  Birdlife  Stories.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

122.  P,  I    Grinnell:  Our  Feathered  Friends.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

123.  P,  I   Miller:  True  Stories  of  Birdlife.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

124.  Finley:  American  Birds.     Scribners. 

125.  G   Beebe:  The  Bird.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

Insects 

FOR  IDENTIFICATION: 

126.  Comstock's  Manual  of  Insects.     Comstock  Publishing  Co. 

127.  I,  G    Holland:  Butterfly  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


APPENDIX  525 

128.  G  Holland:  The  Moth  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

129.  I,  G  Howard:  The  Insect  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

130.  G  Kellogg:  American  Insects.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 
1300.1,  G  Patterson:  The  Spinner  Family.     McClurg  &  Co. 

131.  I,  G  Emerton:  Common  Spiders.     Ginn  &  Co. 

GENERAL: 

132.  I,  G  Cragin:  Our  Insect  Friends  and  Foes.     Putnams. 

133.  I,  G  Comstock,  A.  B.:   Keeping  Bees.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

134.  G  Dickerson:  Moths  and  Butterflies.     Ginn  &  Co. 

135.  G  Howard:  Mosquitoes.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

136.  I,  G  Hunter:   Elementary  Studies  in  Insect  Life.     Crane  &  Co. 

137.  G  Hyatt  and  Arms:   Insecta.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

138.  G  Maeterlinck:  The  Life  of  the  Bee.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

139.  G  Ballard:  Among  Moths  and  Butterflies.     Putnams. 

140.  P,  I  Doulton:  Wings  and  Stings>     Rand,  McNally. 

141.  P,  I  Morley:  Butterflies  and  Bees.     Ginn  &  Co. 

142.  P  Mulcts:  Story  of  Insects.     (Phyllis  Books.)     Page. 

143.  P,  I  Morley:  Insect  Folk.     Ginn  &  Co. 

144.  I,  G  Morley:  The  Honey  Makers.     McClurg  &  Co. 

145.  I,  G  Morley:  The  Bee  People.     McClurg  &  Co. 

146.  I,  G  Morley:  Wasps  and  Their  Ways.     McClurg  &  Co. 

147.  I,  G  Noel:  Buzz.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

148.  G  Smith:  Economic  Entomology.     Lippincott. 

1480.  Folsom:  Economic  Entomology.     P.  Blakiston  &  Co. 

149.  I,  G  Soule  and  Eliott:    Caterpillars  and  Their  Moths.     Century 

Co. 

150.  G  Weed:  Nature  Biographies.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

151.  G  Weed:  Life  Histories  of  American  Insects.     Macmillan  Co. 

Botany 

TEXT-BOOKS  AND  NATURAL  HISTORIES: 

152.  All  Andrews:  Botany  All  the  Year  Round.    American  Book  Co. 

153.  I,  G  Atkinson:  College  Botany.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

154.  I,  G  Bailey:  Lessons  with  Plants.     Macmillan  Co. 

155.  I,  G  Bailey:  Botany.     Macmillan  Co. 

156.  G  Bergen  and  Davis:   Principles  of  Botany.     Ginn  &  Co. 

157.  I,  G  Bergen:  Outlines  of  Botany.     Ginn  &  Co. 

158.  I,  G  Coulter:  Plant  Relations.     Appletons. 

159.  I,  G  Coulter:  Plant  Structures.     Appletons. 

160.  I,  G  Coulter:  Plants.     Appletons. 

161.  All  Kerner  and  Oliver:   Natural  History  of  Plants.     H.  Holt  & 

Co. 


526  NATURE-STUDY 

r62.  I,  G    Leavitt:  Outlines  of  Botany.     American  Book  Co. 

163.  All    Gray:  Lessons  in  Botany.     American  Book  Co. 

164.  I,  G    McDougal:    The  Nature  and  Work  of  Plants.     Macmillan 

Co. 

165.  I,  G    Osterhout:  Experiments  with  Plants.     Macmillan  Co. 

166.  I,  G    Stevens.     Botany.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

KEYS  AND  BOOKS  FOR  IDENTIFICATION: 

167.  G    Atkinson:    Edible  and  Poisonous  Mushrooms.     PlaAt  Pub- 

lishing Co. 

1 68.  All    Blanchan:  Nature's  Garden.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

169.  All    Britton  and  Brown:  Illustrated  Flora.     Scribners. 

170.  All    Gray:  Manual.     American  Book  Co. 

171.  All    Gray:    Field,  Forest,  and  Garden  Botany.     American  Book 

Co. 

172.  I,  G    Clute:  Our  Native  Ferns  in  Their  Native  Haunts.     Stokes. 

173.  All  Keeler:  Our  Native  Trees.     Scribners. 

174.  All  Lounsberry:  Guide  to  the  Trees.     Stokes. 

175.  All  Lounsberry:  Guide  to  the  Wild  Flowers.     Stokes. 

176.  All  Mathews:  Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden.     Apple- 

tons. 

177.  All    Mathews:  Familiar  Trees.     Appletons. 

178.  All    McFarland:    Getting  Acquainted  with  the  Trees.     Outlook 

Co. 

179.  I,  G    Parsons:  How  to  Know  the  Ferns.     Scribners. 

180.  I,  G    Marshall:  The  Mushroom  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

181.  G    Underwood:  Our  Native  Ferns.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

182.  G    Sargent:  Manual  of  Trees.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

183.  All    Creevy:  Flowers  of  Field,  etc.     Harpers. 

184.  All    Going:  Field,  Forest,  and  Wayside  Flowers.    Baker,  Taylor 

&  Co. 

185.  All    Keeler:  Native  Shrubs.     Scribners. 

186.  I,  G    Peterson:  How  to  Know  the  Wild  Fruits.     Macmillan  Co. 

187.  I,  G    Wright:  Flowers  and  Ferns.     Macmillan  Co. 

188    I,  G    Dana:    How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers.     Scribners. 

189.  I,  G    Parkhurst:  Trees,  Shrubs,  and  Vines  of  the  Nor.  East.  U.  S. 

Scribners. 

General  Botany 

190.  All   Atkinson:  First  Studies  of  Plant  Life.     Ginn  &  Co. 

191.  All    Beal:  Seed  Dispersal.     Ginn  &  Co. 

192.  I,  G    Bailey:  Talks  Afield.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

193.  All    Dana:   Plants  and  Their  Children.     American  Book  Co. 

194.  G    Geddes:    Chapters  in  Modern  Botany.     Scribners. 


APPENDIX  ,  527 

195.  I,  G  Herrick:   Chapters  in  Plant  Life.     American  Book  Co. 

196.  I,  G  McDougal:   Elementary  Plant  Physiology.     Longmans. 

197.  P,  I  Morley:  A  Few  Familiar  Flowers.     Ginn  &  Co. 

198.  P,  I  Morley:  Little  Wanderers.     Ginn  &  Co. 

199.  G    Newman:  Bacteria.     Putnams. 

200.  P,  I    Morley:  Flowers  and  their  Friends.     Ginn  &  Co. 

201.  P,  I    Morley:  Seed  Babies.     Ginn  &  Co. 

202.  P,  I    Weed:  Seed  Travellers.     Ginn  &  Co. 

203.  All    NewelFs  Outlines  of  Botany.     (2  vols.)     Ginn  &  Co. 

204.  P    Mulcts:  Story  of  Trees.     Phyllis  Books.)     Page. 

205.  P    Mulcts:  Flower  Story.     (Phyllis  Books.)     Page. 

206.  P,  I    Cooper:  Short  Stories  in  Botany  for  Young  Children.  Crowell. 

207.  G    Gibson:  Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests.     Newson. 

208.  Conn:  Story  of  Germ  Life.     Appletons. 

209.  G    Conn:   Bacteria,  Yeast,  and  Moulds  in  the  Home.    Ginn  & 

Co. 

210.  G    Harwood:  New  Plant  Creations.     (Luther  Burbank.) 

211.  I,  G    Vincent:  The  Plant  World.     Appletons. 

212.  I,  G    MacDougal:  Living  Plants.     Baker,  Taylor  &  Co. 

213.  I,  G    Sargent:  Corn  Plants.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

214.  All    Stone  and  Pickett:  Trees  in  Prose  and  Poetry.     Ginn  &  Co. 

215.  I,  G    Weed:    Ten  New  England  Blossoms.     Houghton,  Mifflin 

&  Co. 

216.  G    Flagg:  A  Year  with  Trees.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 

FORESTRY: 

217.  G    Bruncken:  North  American  Forests  and  Forestry.   Putnams. 

218.  G    Gifford:  Practical  Forestry.     Appletons. 

219.  G    Pinchot:   Primer  of  Forestry.     United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture. 

220.  G    Roth:   First  Book  in  Forestry.     Ginn  &  Co. 

22oa      G    Green:  Forestry  in  Minnesota.     Minnesota  Natural  History 
Survey. 

Agriculture  and  Gardening 

221.  All    Bailey:  Garden  Making.     Macmillan  Co. 

222.  All    Hatch   and    Hazlewood:     Elementary  Agriculture.     Row, 

Peterson   &  Co. 

223.  I,  G    Burkett,  Stevens,  and  Hill:  Agriculture  for  Beginners.     Ginn 

&  Co. 

224.  Shelton:  The  Seasons  in  a  Flower  Garden.     Scribners. 

225.  I,  G    Edgar:  The  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat.     Appletons. 

226.  I,  G    Eggert:  Professional  Farming.     Welch  &  Co. 


528  NATURE-STUDY 

227.  I,  G    Goodrich:  First  Book  in  Farming.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

228.  I,  G    Goff  and  Mayne:  First  Principles  of  Agriculture.    American 

Book  Co. 

229.  All    Hunn  and  Bailey:  The  Practical  Garden  Book.     Macmillan 

Co. 

230.  I,  G    Percival:  Agricultural  Botany.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

231.  I,  G    Bailey:  Principles  of  Agriculture.     Macmillan  Co. 

232.  I,  G    Bailey:  Nursery  Book.     Macmillan  Co. 

233.  G    Bailey:  Plant  Breeding.     Macmillan  Co. 

234.  P    Brown:    Outline  of  School   Gardening.     Hyannis  Normal 

School. 

235.  All   Allen  and  Godfrey:  Miniature  Window  Gardening.  Pott  &  Co. 

236.  I,  G    Barnard:   Talks  about  Useful  Plants.     Funk,  Wagnalls  Co. 

237.  P,  I    Duncan:   Mary's  Garden  and  How  it  Grew.     Century  Co. 

238.  I,  G    Powell:  The  Orchard  and  Fruit  Garden.    McClure,  Phillips 

&  Co. 

239.  G    Morris:  Farming  for  Boys.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

240.  All    Hemenway:    How  to  Make  a  School  Garden.     Doubleday, 

Page   &  Co. 

241.  I,  G    James:  Practical  Agriculture.     Appletons. 

242.  G    King:  The  Soil.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

243.  G    King:  The  Physics  of  Agriculture.    Published  by  the  Author. 

244.  P,  I    Shepard:  Life  on  the  Farm.     Flanagan. 

245.  All    Skinner:  Little  Gardens.     Appletons. 

246.  I,  G    Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture: 
Many  of  these  are  of  very  great  value  in  teaching  nature-study.  They 

consist  of  Year-books  upon  general  topics  in  agriculture,  special  Bul- 
letins on  certain  crops,  methods,  etc.,  and  numerous  Farmers'  Bulletins. 
They  are  upon  many  practical  household,  farmyard,  and  field  topics. 
Send  for  a  list  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins.  The  Year-books  may  some- 
times be  obtained  free  through  the  courtesy  of  the  local  Representative 
in  Congress,  or  they  may  be  bought  from  the  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  Send  also  for 
the  General  list  of  publications  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  in 
which  many  Bulletins  will  be  found  upon  crops,  economic  entomology, 
soils,  economic  ornithology,  bird  protection,  trees,  forestry,  etc.  These 
Bulletins  are  generally  not  distributed  gratis,  but  are  well  worth  buying. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  available  for  dis- 
tribution January,  1907,  and  useful  in  nature-study,  sent  free  to  any 
address  in  the  United  States  on  application  to  a  Senator,  Representative 
or  Delegate  in  Congress,  or  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 

(22)     The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 
(25)     Peanuts:  Culture  and  Uses. 


APPENDIX  529 


(27)  Flax  for  Seed  and  Fibre. 

(28)  Weeds:  And  How  to  Kill  Them. 

(29)  Souring  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk. 

(32)  Silos  and  Silage. 

(33)  Peach  Growing  for  Market. 

(34)  Meats:  Composition  and  Cooking. 

(35)  Potato  Culture. 
(39)  Onion  Culture. 

(41)  Fowls:  Care  and  Feeding. 

(42)  Facts  About  Milk. 
(44)  Commercial  Fertilizers. 
(49)  Sheep  Feeding. 

(51)  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

(52)  The  Sugar  Beet. 

(54)  Some  Common  Birds. 

(55)  The  Dairy  Herd. 
(59)  Bee  Keeping. 

(61)  Asparagus  Culture. 

(62)  Marketing  Farm  Produce. 
(64)  Ducks  and  Geese. 

(66)  Meadows  and  Pastures. 

(71)  Essentials  in  Beef  Production. 

(74)  Milk  as  Food. 

(77)  The  Liming  of  Soils. 

(80)  The  Peach  Twig-borer. 

(85)  Fish  as  Food. 

(86)  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 
(88)  Alkali  Lands. 

(93)  Sugar  as  Food. 

(95)  Good  Roads  for  Farmers. 

(96)  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton. 
(99)  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 

(104)  Notes  on  Frost. 

(106)  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

(no)  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States. 

(in)  Farmers'  Interest  in  Good  Seed. 

(112)  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

(113)  The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

(121)  Beans,  Peas,  and  other  Legumes  as  Food. 

(126)  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings* 

(127)  Important  Insecticides. 

(128)  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food. 

(129)  Sweet  Potatoes. 

(132)  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat, 


53o  NATURE-STUDY 

(134)  Tree  Planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds. 

(135)  Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture. 

(137)  The  Angora  Goat. 

(138)  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden. 

(140)  Pineapple  Growing. 

(141)  Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 

(143)  The  Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle. 

(146)  Insecticides  and  Fungicides. 

(148)  Celery  Culture. 

(154)  The  Home  Fruit  Garden:  Preparation  and  Care. 

(155)  How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts. 

(156)  The  Home  Vineyard. 

(157)  The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

(161)  Practical  Suggestions  for  Fruit  Growers. 

(165)  Culture  of  the  Silkworm. 

(166)  Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm. 
(170)  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

(172)  Scale  Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrus  Trees. 

(173)  Primer  of  Forestry. 

(175)  Home  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice. 

(176)  Cranberry  Culture. 

(177)  Squab  Raising. 
(179)  Horseshoeing. 

(181)  Pruning. 

(182)  Poultry  as  Food. 

(183)  Meat  on  the  Farm:  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping. 

(184)  Marketing  Live  Stock. 

(185)  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 
(187)  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands. 
(192)  Barnyard  Manure. 

(195)  Annual  Flowering  Plants. 

(196)  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad. 

(198)  Strawberries. 

(199)  Corn  Growing. 

(200)  Turkeys. 

(201)  Cream  Separator  on  Western  Farms. 

(203)  Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  Jellies. 

(204)  The  Cultivation  of  Mushrooms. 

(205)  Pig  Management. 

(208)  Varieties  of  Fruits  Recommended  for  Planting. 

(213)  Raspberries. 

(215)  Alfalfa  Growing. 

(218)  The  School  Garden. 

(219)  Lessons  from  the  Grain  Rust  Epidemic  of  1904, 


APPENDIX  531 

(220)  Tomatoes. 

(228)  Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Management. 

(229)  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

(231^  Spraying  for  Cucumber  and  Melon  Diseases. 

(234)  The  Guinea  Fowl. 

(235)  Preparation  of  Cement  Concrete. 

(236)  Incubation  and  Incubators. 

(240)  Inoculation  of  Legumes. 

(241)  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm. 

(242)  An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

(243)  Fungicides  and  their  Use  in  Preventing  Diseases  of  Fruits. 
(245)  Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils. 

(247)  The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth  and  Apple  Scab. 

(248)  The  Lawn. 

(252)  Maple  Sugar  and  Sirup. 

(253)  The  Germination  of  Seed  Com. 

(254)  Cucumbers. 

(255)  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden. 
(257)  Soil  Fertility. 

(260)  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities. 

(264)  The  Brown-tail  Moth  and  How  to  Control  It. 

(265)  Game  Laws  for  1906. 

(266;  Management  of  Soils  to  Conserve  Moisture. 

(268)  Industrial  Alcohol:    Sources  and  Manufacture. 

(269)  Industrial  Alcohol:   Uses  and  Statistics. 

246^1.  Publications  of  State  Agricultural  Schools.  These  are  similar 
to  the  Government  reports.  Many  may  be  had  free.  Send 
for  list. 

Physics 

247.  Aldous:  Elementary  Physics.     Macmillan  Co. 

248.  Atkinson-Ganot:  Physics.     Wm.  Wood  &  Co. 

249.  G    Atkinson:  Electricity  for  Everybody.     Century  Co. 

250.  G    Millikin  and  Gale:  Physics.     Ginn&Co. 
2500.  G    Avery:  School  Physics.     Sheldon  &  Co. 

251.  G    Avery:  First  Book  in  Physical  Science.     Sheldon  &  Co, 

252.  G    Benjamin:  Age  of  Electricity.     Scribners. 

253.  G    Carhart  and  Chute:   Physics.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

254.  G    Gage:  Physics.     Ginn  &  Co. 

255.  G    Harrington:  Physics  for  Grammar  Grades.   American  Book 

Co. 

256.  Jackson:   Elementary   Electricity   and   Magnetism.     Mac- 

millan Co. 

257.  G    Mann  and  Twiss:  Physics.     Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 


532  NATURE-STUDY 

258.  G  Miller  and  Foerste:  Physics.     Scribners. 

259.  G  Gifford:  First  Lessons  in  Physics.     Thompson. 

260.  G  Barnard:  First  Steps  in  Electricity.     Maynard. 

261.  G  St.  John:  Things  a  Boy  Ought  to  Know  About  Electricity. 

St.  John. 

Chemistry 

262.  G    Johnston:  Chemistry  of  Common  Life.     Appletons. 

263.  G   Linebarger:  Chemistry.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

264.  G    Newell's  Descriptive  Chemistry.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

265.  Newth:  Inorganic  Chemistry.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

266.  Remsen:  Chemistry.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

267.  G    Snyder:    Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life.     Macmillan 

Co. 

268.  G  Williams:  Chemistry  of  Cookery.     Appletons. 

269.  G  Williams:  Chemistry.     Ginn  &  Co. 

270.  G  Avery:  School  Chemistry.     American  Book  Co. 

271.  G  Ballard:  The  World  of  Matter. 

272.  G  Hessler  and  Smith:  Chemistry.     Sanborn. 

273.  G  Newth:  Elementary  Chemistry.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

274.  G  Richards  and  Elliott:  The  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Clean- 

ing.    Home  Science  Publishing  Co. 

275.  G    Black:    Photography  Indoors  and  Out     Houghton,  Mifflin 

Co. 

Manuals  of  Construction  for  Boys. — Invention. 

276.  I,  G  Barnard:  Tools  and  Machines.     Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 

277.  I,  G  Modern  Boy's  Playmate.     Warne. 

278.  I,  G  Waite:  A  Boys'  Workshop.     Lothrop. 

279.  I,  G  Wheeler:    Woodworking.     Putnams. 

280.  I,  G  Bond:  The  Scientific  American  Boy.     Munn. 

281.  I,  G  Hopkins:  Home  Mechanics.     Munn. 

282.  I,  G  Hopkins:  Experimental  Science.     Munn. 

283.  I,  G  Magical  Experiments,  Science  and  Play:   McKay. 

284.  I,  G  Thurston:  History  of  the  Steam  Engine.     Appletons. 

285.  I,  G  Doubleday:  Stories  of  Inventors.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

286.  I,  G  Cochrane:  Modern  Industrial  Progress.     Lippincott. 

287.  I,  G  Cochrane:  Romance  of  Industry  and  Invention.  Chambers. 

288.  I,  G  Macon:  Origin  of  Inventions.     Scribners. 

289.  I,  G  Sutherland:     Twentieth    Century  Inventions.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 

290.  I,  G    Byrn:  Progress  of  Inventions  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 


APPENDS  533 

291.  I,  G    Baker:  Boys'  Book  of  Inventions.     McClurg  &  Co. 

292.  ,  G  Baker:  Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation. 

293.  ,  G  Williams:   Romance  of  Modern  Invention.     Lippincott. 

294.  ,  G  Williams:   Romance  of  Modern  Engineering.     Lippincott. 

295.  ,  G  Beard'-    Field  and  Forest  Handy  Book.     Scribners. 

296.  ,  G  Beard:  The  American  Boy's  Handy  Book.     Scribners. 

297.  ,  G  Beard:  The  American  Boy's  Book  of  Sports.     Scribners. 

298.  ,  G  Beard:   The  Jack  of  All  Trades.     Scribners. 

299.  ,  G  Keene:   Boys'  Guide  to  Fishing,  etc.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

300.  ,  G  Thompson:    The  Boys'  Book  of  Sports  and  Outdoor  Life. 

Century  Co. 

Books  for  Girls. — Domestic  Economy 

301.  P    Lucas:   What  Shall  We  Do  Now?     Stokes. 

302.  P    White:  The  Child's  Rainy  Day  Book.     Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co. 

303.  I,  G    Williams  and  Fisher:   Elements  of  Cookery. 

304.  I,  G    Wilson:  Domestic  Science  in  Grammar  Grades.    Macmillan 

Co. 


3°5- 
306. 

3°7- 
308.. 

3°9- 
310. 


G  Beard:  American  Girl's  Handy  Book.     Scribners. 

G  Beard:   Indoor  and  Outdoor  Handicraft.     Scribners. 

G  Beard:   What  a  Girl  Can  Make  and  Do.     Scribners. 

G  Campbell:  American  Girl's  Home  Book  of  Work  and  Play. 

Putnams. 

G  Kirkland:   Dora's  Housekeeping.     McClurg  &  Co. 

G  Kirkland:  Six  Little  Cooks.     McClurg  &  Co. 


311.  I,  G    Tate:   The  Child's  Cookery  Book,     Richards. 

Industry 

31  ia.  All  Carpenter:  Foods  and  Their  Uses.     Scribners. 

312.  P,  I  Chamberlain:   How  We  are  Clothed.     Macmillan  Co. 

313.  P,  I  Chamberlain:   How  We  are  Fed.     Macmillan  Co. 

314.  P,  I  Chamberlain:    How  We  are  Sheltered.     Macmillan  Co. 

315.  P,  I  Chase  and  Clow:  Stories  of  Industry.    Educational  Publish- 

ing Co. 

316.  P,  I    Lane:  Industries  of  To-Day.     Ginn  &  Co 

317.  P,  I    Clifford:   Information  Readers.     Boston  School  Supply  Co. 

318.  P,  I    Murche:  Readers  in  Science.     Macmillan  Co. 

319.  P,  I    Kirby:    Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard.     Flanagan. 

320.  P,  I    Rocheleau:  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry.     Educa- 

tional Publishing  Co. 
3200  I,  G,  Redway:  Commercial  Geography.     Scribners. 


534  NATURE-STUDY 

321.  P,  I   Mowry:   American  Inventions  and  Inventors.     Silver,  Bur- 

dette  &  Co. 

322.  P,  I    Rocheleau:  Great  American  Industries.    Flanagan. 

323.  I,  G    Willets:  Workers  of  the  Nation.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Physical  Geography  and  Geology 

324.  G   Brigham:  Geology.    Appletons. 

325.  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury:   Geology.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

326.  G    Davis:  Physical  Geography.     Ginn  &  Co. 

327.  I,  G    Dodge:  Reader  in  Physical  Geography.     Longmans,  Green 

&  Co. 

328.  G    Dryer:  Physical  Geography.     American  Book  Co. 

329.  I,  G    Giberne:  Ocean  of  Air.     Carter  Bros. 

330.  I,  G    Greene:  Coal  and  Coal.  Mines.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

331.  I,  G    Harrington:  About  the  Weather.     Appletons. 

332.  LeConte:  Geology.     Appletons. 

333.  G    Lucas:  Animals  of  the  Past.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

334.  G    Mill:'  Realm  of  Nature.     Scribners. 

335.  I,  G    Nichols:  Underfoot.     Lothrop. 

336.  G    Shaler:   First  Lessons  in  Geology.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
336(1.  Shaler:  Nature  and  Man  in  America.     Scribners. 

337.  I,  G    Shinn:   Story  of  the  Mine.     Appletons. 

338.  I,  G    Tarr:   Physical  Geography.     Macmillan  Co. 

339.  G    Tarr:  Geology.     Macmillan  Co. 

340.  I,  G    Redway:  Physical  Geography.     Scribners. 

341.  Waldo:  Elementary  Meteorology.     American  Book  Co. 

342.  G    Wright:  The  Ice  Age  in  America.     Appletons. 

343.  I,  G    Fairbanks:  Rocks  and  Minerals.  Educational  Publishing  Co. 

344.  G    Russell:  North  America.     Appletons. 

345.  I,  G    Barnard:  Talks  About  the  Weather.     Funk  &  Wagnalls. 

346.  G    Kingsley:  Town  Geology.     Appletons. 

347-  I,  G    Crosby:  Common  Minerals.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

348.  I,  G    Martin:  Story  of  Coal.      Appletons. 

Elementary  and  Home  Geography 

349.  P,  I   Longmans'  Pictorial  Geography.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

350.  P,  I    Fairbanks:  Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades.     Educa- 

tional Publishing  Co. 

351.  I,  G    Fairbanks:  Story  of  Our  Mother  Earth.     Whitaker&  Ray. 

352.  Troeger:  Home  Geography.     Appletons. 

353.  Frye:  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins.     Ginn  &  Co. 

354-  Dodge:  Elementary  Geography.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

355.        I    King:  Elementary  Geography.     Scribners. 


APPENDIX 


535 


356.  P,  I 

357.  P,  I 

358.  P,  I 

359.  P,  I 

360.  P,  I 

361.  P, 

362.  P, 

363.  P, 

364.  P, 

365.  P, 

366.  P, 
367. 


368. 

3680. 

369. 

370. 

371. 

372. 

373. 

374. 

375. 

376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 


P 

I 

G 

All 


382.  P,  I 

383.  P,  I 

384.  P,  I 

385.  G 

386.  I,  G 
3860.  All 
387. 


Dun  ton:  The  World  and  Its  People.    Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 

Shaw:  People  of  Other  Lands.     American  Book  Co. 

Schwartz:   Five  Little  Strangers.     American  Book  Co. 

Under  Sunny  Skies.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Chance:  Little  Folks  in  Many  Lands.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Beale&  Logan:  Children  of  the  World.    Educational  Pub.  Co. 

Allen:  Children  of  the  Palm  Lands.  Educational  Pub.  Co. 

Riggs:  Stories  from  Lands  of  Sunshine.   University  Pub.  Co. 

Muller:  Little  People  of  the  Snow.     Flanagan. 

Wade:  Our  Little  Indian  Cousins.     Wilde. 

Carroll:  Around  the  World.     Morse. 

Tarr  and  McMurry:  First  Book  in  Geography.      Macmillan 

Co. 
Trotter:  Lessons  from  the  New  Geography.     D.  C.  Heath 

&Co. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene 

Martin-Fitz:  Human  Body.     H.  Holt&  Co. 

Walker:  Physiology.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Hough  &  Sedgwick.    The  Human  Mechanism.    Ginn  &  Co. 

Blaisdell:  Life  and  Health.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Colton:  Physiology.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Krohn:  Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene.     Appletons. 

Peabody:  Physiology.     Macmillan  Co. 

Pyle:  Personal  Hygiene.     Saunders  &  Co. 

Sedgwick:  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  Public  Health. 

Macmillan  Co. 

Weeks-Shaw:  Text-Book  of  Nursing.     Appletons. 
Crandall:  How  to  Keep  Well.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Blaisdell:  Child's  Book  of  Health.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Blaisdell:    How  to  Keep  Well.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Blaisdell:   Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Blaisdell:   How  to  Teach  Physiology.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Overton:  Primary  and  Intermediate  Physiologies.   American 

Book  Co. 
Hutchinson:   Our  Wonderful  Bodies  and  How  to  Take  Care 

of  Them.    (First  and  Second  Books.)    Maynard,  Merrill. 
Baldwin:   Primary  Physiology  and  Hygiene.     Werner  Book 

Co. 

Baldwin:  Essential  Lessons  in  Physiology.     Werner. 
Shaw:  School  Hygiene.      Macmillan  Co. 
Gulick  Hygiene  Series.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Baker  and   Burrage:     School  Sanitation  and    Decoration. 

D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


536  NATURE-STUDY 

Astronomy 

388.  I,  G  Ball:  Starland.     Ginn  &  Co. 

389.  I,  G  Holden:  Earth  and  Sky.     Appletons. 

390.  I,  G  Holden:  The  Sun  and  His  Family.     Appletons. 

391.  G  Holden:  The  Story  of  Great  Astronomers.     Appletons. 

392.  G  Howe:     Elementary  Descriptive  Astronomy.     Silver,    Bur- 

dette  &  Co. 

393.  G  Newcomb:  The  Stars.     Putnams. 

394.  I,  G  Nichols:  Overhead.     Lothrop. 

395.  P,  I  Pratt:   Storyland  of  Stars.     Educational  Publishing  Co. 

396.  Proctor:  Easy  Star  Lessons.     Putnams. 

397.  P,  I  Proctor:  Stories  of  Starland.     Potter  and  Putnams. 

398.  Serviss:  Other  Worlds.     Appletons. 

399.  I,  G  Champlin:  Young  Folks'  Astronomy.     H.  Holt  &  Co. 

400.  I,  G  Giberne:  Among  the  Stars.    Carter  Bros. 

401.  All  Porter:  Stars  in  Story  and  Legend.     Ginn  &  Co. 

402.  I,  G  Parker:  Familiar  Talks  in  Astronomy.     McClurg&  Co. 

Biographical  and  Historical 

403.  G  Butterworth:   In  the  Days  of  Audubon.     Appletons. 

404.  G  What  Mr.  Darwin  Saw.     Harpers. 

405.  G  Wright:    Children's  Stories  of  Great  Scientists.     Scribners. 

406.  G  Buckley:   Short  History  of  Science.     Appletons. 

407.  G  Hubert:  Inventors.     Scribners. 

General  Reading 

408.  All  Sewell:  Black  Beauty. 

409.  All  Saunders:   Beautiful  Joe. 

410.  All  Anon:   Duke.     Flanagan. 

411.  All  Higginbotham:  Rover's  Story.     Lee  &  Shepard. 

412.  I,  G  Brown:  Rab  and  His  Friends. 

413.  I,  G  Bolton:    Our  Devoted  Friend  the  Dog.     Doubleday,  Page 

&  Co. 

414.  I,  G  Lane:  All  About  Dogs.     J.  Lane. 

415.  P,  I  Carter:   Cat  Stories.     (From  St.  Nicholas.)     Century  Co. 

416.  P,  I  Carter:  Stories  About  Animals.    (From  St.  Nicholas.)    Cen- 

tury Co. 

417.  P,  I  Johonnot:   Cats  and  Dogs.     American  Book  Co. 

418.  I,  G  Huidekoper:  The  Cat.     Putnams. 

419.  P,  I  Horse  and  Other  Stories.     Cassells. 

420.  All  Miller:  Our  Home  Pets.     Harpers. 


APPENDIX 


537 


421.  P,  I 

422.  P,  I 

423-  P,I 

424.  P,  I 

425-  P,I 

426.  P,  I 

427.  P,I 

428.  P,  I 

429.  P,  I 

430.  P,I 

431-  P,I 

432.  P,I 

433-  I,  G 

434-  I,  G 

435-  I,  G 

436.  G 

437.  G 

438.  I,  G 
439-  I,  G 

440.  I,  G 

441.  I,  G 

442.  -I,  G 

443-  P,  I 

444.  P,  ~ 

445-  P, 

446.  P, 

447-  P, 

448.  P, 

449-  I, 


450. 


451- 

452.  G 

453-  I,  G 

454-  G 

455-  G 
456.  G 
457-  I,  G 
458.  I,  G 
459-  I,  G 


Wood:    Petland  Revisited.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Judd:  Wigwam  Stories.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Eastman:  Indian  Boyhood.     McClure. 

Deming:  Indian  Childlife.     Stokes. 

Deming:  Red  Folk  and  White  Folk.     Stokes. 

Holbrook:   Hiawatha  Primer.     (Prose.)     Houghton,  Mifflin 

&  Co. 

Button :  In  Field  and  Pasture.  (Primitive  Life.)  Am.  Book  Co. 
Button:  Hunting  and  Fishing.     American  Book  Co. 
Waterloo:  The  Story  of  Ab.     Boubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 
(2  vols.)     Rand,    McNally  & 


Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 


Bopp:  The  Tree  Bwellers. 
Bopp:  The  Cave  Bwellers. 

Co. 

Bopp:  The  Tent  Bwellers. 
Sandys:  Trapper  Jim.     Macmillan  Co. 
Laut:  The  Story  of  the  Trapper.     Appletons. 
Bostock:  The  Training  of  Wild  Animals.     Century  Co. 
Bu  Chaillu:  Wild  Life  Under  the  Equator.     Harpers. 
Ober:  Crusoe's  Island.    Appletons. 
Befoe:  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Book  of  Famous  Explorations.     (Young  Folks'   Library.) 

Hall  &  Locke. 

Moffet:   Stories  of  Banger  and  Baring.     Century  Co. 
Starr:  Strange  Peoples.     B.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Jordan:   Matka  and  Kotek.     Whitaker  &  Ray. 
Bamford:  Land  and  Water  Friends.     Lothrop. 
Bamford:  Look-about  Club.     Lothrop. 
Bamford:  Talks  About  Queer  Folks.     Lothrop. 
Chambers:  Orchard  Land.     Appletons. 
Chambers:  Outdoorland.     Appletons. 
Wright:  Seaside  and  Wayside.     B.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Holden :    Wonders  of  Earth,  Sea,  and  Sky.     (Young  Folks' 

Library.)     Hall  &  Locke.' 
Holden:  Real  Things  in  Nature.     (Cyclopedic.)    Macmillan 

Co. 

Lane:  Triumphs  of  Science.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Awdry:  Early  Chapters  in  Science.     Button. 
Miller:  The  Brook  Book.     Boubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Torrey:  A  Florida  Sketch-Book.    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Torrey:   A  Rambler's  Lease.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Torrey:  Birds  in  the  Bush.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Burroughs:  Birds  and  Bees.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Burroughs:    Sharp  Eyes.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Burroughs:  Signs  and  Seasons.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


538  NATURE-STUDY 

460.  I,  G    Burroughs:  Wake  Robin.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

461.  Darwin:  Origin  of  Species.     Appletons. 

462.  G    Gaye:  Great  World's  Farm.     Macmillan  Co. 

463.  I,  G    Gibson:  Eye  Spy.     Harpers. 

464.  I,  G    Gray:  Nature's  Miracles.     Ginn  &  Co. 

465.  I,  G    Grinnell:  Neighbors  of  Wood  and  Stream.     Stokes. 

466.  All    Holbrook:  Book  of  Nature  Myths.   Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

467.  G   lies:    Little  Masterpieces  of  Science.    Doubleday,  Page   & 

Co. 

468.  G    Jordan:  Science  Sketches.     McClurg  &  Co. 

469.  P,  I    Jordan:  True  Tales  of  Birds  and  Beasts.   D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

470.  G    Thoreau:     Succession    of    Forest    Trees,  etc.     Houghton, 

Mifflin   &  Co. 

471.  Thoreau:  Walden.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

472.  I,  G    Warner:  My  Summer  in  a  Garden.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

473.  G    Warner:   In  the  Wilderness.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. . 

474.  I,  G    Warner:  A  Hunting  of  the  Deer.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

475.  I,  G    White,  Gilbert:    Natural  History  of  Selborne.     (Abridged.) 

Ginn  &  Co. 

4750.  Shaler:  Our  Continent.     Ginn  &  Co. 

4756.  Brigham:     Geographical   Influences  in  American   History. 

Ginn  &  Co. 
475C.  Van  Dyke,  J.  C.:  Nature  for  Its  Own  Sake.     Scribners. 

Scientific  and  Nature-Study  Periodicals 

476.  G,  I   Agricultural  papers. 

477.  G    American  Botanist. 

478.  All    Bird-Lore.    (Audubon  Society  Organ.)     Has  a  Nature-Study 

Department. 

479.  P,  I    Birds  and  Nature. 

480.  G    Country  Life. 

481.  All    Nature-Study  Review.     (Pedagogical  and  Scientific.) 

482.  G    Photographic  Times. 
4820.     G    Plant  World. 

483.  I,  G   Popular  Mechanics. 

484.  G  Popular  Science  Monthly. 

485.  G  Outdoors. 

486.  G  Scientific  American. 

487.  G  Scientific  American  Supplement. 

488.  P,  I   St.  Nicholas  and  some  other  juvenile  journals  have  a  regular 

nature-study  department. 
488a.     G    Journal  of  Geography. 


INDEX 


Adaptation,  72,  92,  103,  104,  173. 
Esthetics   of   nature-study,    57. 
Agricultural  schools,  483. 
Agriculture,    260,   485,   Chap.   XX 

506. 

Aigrettes,  136. 
Aims   of   nature-study,    Chaps.    II, 

III,  XX. 
Algae,  503. 
Alligator,  164. 
Amanita,  394. 
Amphibians,  148,  149. 
Animal  study,  71;    outline,  73. 
Animals, useful.  (See  useful  Animals.) 
Annual  rings,  307. 
Annuals,  444. 
Anopheles,  213. 
Ant  cage,  231. 
Ants,  218,  230,  441. 
Aphides,  217. 
Apple,  219. 
Apteryx,  103. 
Aquaria,    165;     animals,    168,    257; 

care,  166;   lessons,  Chap.  XX. 
Aquatic  insects,  177,  191. 
Aquatic  plants,  491. 
Arbor  Day,  374;   programme,   384, 

Chap.  XX. 

Art  study  and  nature-study,  57. 
Astronomy,  Chap.  XX. 
Attracting  birds,  143,  421-447. 
Audubon  Society,  138,  139. 

Bacteria,  471,  476,  488,  494. 
Balloon-spider,  248. 
Balsam,  352. 
Bark,  309,  352. 
Bark  lice,  218. 
Barometer,  469. 


Bat,  463. 

Beautification  of  school  grounds, 
281,  374. 

Beauty  of  nature,  17,  58. 

Bed  bugs,  214. 

Bee-fly,  245. 

Bees,  205,  225,  43°-456- 

Beetles,  199;  borers,  202;  cucum- 
ber, 201;  fire-fly,  202;  goldsmith, 
202;  June  beetle,  199;  lady  bug, 
202;  potato  beetle,  201;  rose 
chafer,  201;  tiger  beetle,  202. 

Berries,  120,  121,  143,  352. 

Biennials,  304,  444. 

Bird  Day,  140. 

Bird  houses,  145. 

Bird  lessons,  Chap.  XX. 

Bird-Lore,  140. 

Birds,  81,  89,  99;  attracting,  143, 
421,  447;  Audubon  Society,  139; 
bills,  100;  calendar,  90;  care  of 
young,  116;  color,  96,  104;  eco- 
nomic, 122,  221,  449;  eggs,  94; 
enemies,  105,  132;  feet,  99;  flight, 
102;  food,  119;  fruit  dispersal, 
352;  general  structure,  99;  les- 
sons on,  Chap.  XX;  migration, 
116;  moulting,  107;  nests,  92, 
no;  observation,  85;  plumage, 
101;  protection,  132;  song,  95, 
106;  where  found,  87;  wing,  92- 
99;  young,  96. 

Bird  trough,  283. 

Bison,  462. 

Bittern,  105 

Black  bass,  173. 

Blackbird,  106,  112,  117,  120,  124. 

Blood,  456. 

Bloodroot,  309 


539 


540 


NATURE-STUDY 


Bluebird,    108,   112,   117,   119,   122, 

145- 

Bluejay,  119,  120,  122,  126. 
Bobolink,  112,  119,  120,  124. 
Bones,  428. 
Borers,  217. 
Boxelder,  331. 
Breathing  pores,  314. 
Breeding  of  farm  animals,  507. 
Brook,  408,  413. 
Budding,  290. 
Buds,  311. 
Bud  scales,  311. 
Bugs,  192. 

Building  stones,  485, 
Bulbs,  280,  286,  310,  Chap.  XX. 
Bullhead,  174. 
Bumblebees,  227,  417. 
Burs,  349. 

Butterfly,  194,  236,  416,  429. 
Butternut,  331. 

Cabbage   butterfly,    196,    216,    236, 

428. 

Cage-birds,  123. 
Calendar,  bird,  90,  433,  449. 
Cambium  layer,  359,  306. 
Camel,  462. 
Canary,  108,  115,  428. 
Canker-worm,  244. 
Carbon,  455. 

Carbon-dioxide,  455,  470. 
Cardinal,  Kentucky,  165. 
Carp,  174. 
Cassowary,  103. 
Catbird,  84,  120,  122,  124. 
Caterpillar.  416,  428. 
Catkins,  330. 
Cecropia,  240. 
Cedarbird,  124. 
Centipedes,  250. 
Cereals,  353,  444,  456. 
Chalcis-fly,  -228. 
Chameleon,  161. 

Chemistry  lessons,  455,  Chap.  XX. 
Chickadee,  112,  119,  120,  122,  143 

221. 
Chicken,   106,   109,   no,    115,    122, 

145,  409. 
Chlorophyll,  315,  479. 


Cicada,  234,  442. 

Clam,  254. 

Classification,  n,  27,  76,  446. 

Clay,  437- 

Cleanliness,  471. 

Clearwing  moth,  240. 

Clothes-moth,  215. 

Clothing,  404,  427. 

Clouded  sulphur  butterfly,  236. 

Clover,  red,  227.  , 

Coal,  453- 

Cockle-bur,  350. 

Cockroach,  215. 

Cocoon,  201,  405,  416,  428. 

Codfish,  173. 

Coddling  moth,  219,  472. 

Cold  frame,  275. 

Coleoptera,  199. 

Collecting,  43,  136,  166,  168,  176. 

Coloration,  protective'    Birds,   104; 

insects,  243;   toad,  158. 
Colors  of  foliage,  362. 
Combustion,  470. 
Comma  butterfly,  237. 
Comparison,  n,  15,  27,  76. 
Compass,  magnetic,  427. 
Competitive    gardening,    292,    448, 

462. 
Composites,  332,  347,  443,  474,  503, 

SOQ- 
Condensation,  412,  427. 

Conduction,  438. 

Conifers,  362,  363,  408,  420,  462. 

Contagion,  471. 

Convection,  454,  470. 

Conversational  method,  23. 

Copepods,  251. 

Coral,  256,  453,  477. 

Corn,  309. 

Cornstalk,  306. 

Correlation,  53;  with  art,  57;  with 
expression,  22,  53;  with  geog- 
raphy, 54;  with  literature,  62. 

Cotton,  420. 

Cotton  boll-weevil,  228. 

Cottonwood,  330,  349. 

Course  of  study,  399. 

Courtship  of  birds,  107. 

Cow,  79,  406,  461,  493. 

Cowbird,  115,  120,  122. 


INDEX 


Crabs,  252. 

Crayfish,  251,  442,  473. 

Crickets,  232. 

Cross  pollination,  225,  324,  326,  329. 

Croton-bug,  215. 

Crow,  119,  120,  124. 

Crystals,  427. 

Cuckoo,  221. 

Culex,  213. 

Cultivation  of  farms,  482. 

Cultural  value  of  nature-study,  15. 

Culture-epoch  theory,  10. 

Cutworm,  216,  294. 

Daddy-long-legs,  250. 

Dairy,  493. 

Dandelion,  336,  341. 

Deciduous  trees,  363. 

Deduction,  n. 

Deer,  407,  419,  462. 

Destruction  of  birds,  132. 

Development  method,  24,  33. 

Diagrams,  37,  59. 

Diatoms,  338. 

Digestion,  439,  456. 

Dip-net,  177. 

Disease,  from  flies,  205;  from  mos- 
quitoes, 213.  (See  Bacteria.) 

Distribution,  of  animals,  472,  501; 
of  plants,  476,  506. 

Dog,  414. 

Dogday  harvest-fly,  234. 

Dog-fish,  171,  174. 

Doves,  145. 

Dragon-fly,  189,  429. 

Drawing,  37,  59. 

Drinking  trough,  144. 

Duck,  102,  103,  115,  117,  120,  122, 
123,  415,  440. 

Eagle,  415. 

Earth  study,  55,  Chap.  XX.,  499. 

Earthworm,  255,  409. 

Economic  value  of  birds,  122;   toad, 

159;   insects,  211,  230. 
Eel,  173,  174. 
Eel-grass,  167. 
Eft,  1 60. 

Eggs,  94,  122,  133,  134. 
Egret,  137. 


Eiderduck,  112. 

Electricity,  500. 

Electric-light  bug,  192. 

Elementary  science,  483. 

Elodea,  167. 

Emu,  103. 

Equisetum,  390. 

Evaporation,  412,  427. 

Evergreens,  420,  433. 

Exhibits  (garden),  430,  443,  448,  459. 

Experiments,  39. 

Explosive  fruit,  352. 

Extinct  animals,  502. 

Fairy  tales  and  nature-study,  65. 
Feathers,  101,  478;    millinery,   123, 

136,  137- 

Feeding  farm  animals,  483. 

Fernery,  282,  389. 

Ferns,  388,  475,  503. 

Fertilizing  soil,  266,  283. 

Fibrovascular  bundles,  305. 

Field  lessons,  35,  48,  51. 

Field  mice,  128. 

Fish,  169,  419,  479;  care,  167; 
economics,  172;  freshwater,  173, 
479;  hatchery,  173;  spawning, 
172;  structure,  170. 

Fisheries,  173. 

Flax,  420,  433. 

Flea,  214. 

Fleshy  roots,  304. 

Flight,  102. 

Flowerless  plants,  388,  503. 

Flower  list,  295. 

Flowers,  plan  of  study,  321,  336, 
Chap.  XX,  422,  423,  508;  rela- 
tion to  insects,  225,  Chap.  XX; 
families,  508. 

Fly,  203,  457,  496. 

Foliage  of  trees,  361. 

Food,  birds,  119,  126. 

Foods,  439. 

Forest,  366,  443;  distribution,  364; 
insect  enemies,  221;  leaf  mould, 
368;  struggle  for  light,  369;  uses, 
see  Forestry. 

Forestry,  360,  504. 

Formicarium,  231. 

Fossils,  502. 


542 


NATURE-STUDY 


Four-o'clock,  341. 

Fox,  415. 

Freezing,  plants,  buds,  312. 

Frog,  150,  152,  409,  417;  eggs,  152; 

tadpoles,  156. 
Fruit,  120,  352,  405,  433,  474,  49°> 

Chap.  XX. 
Fruit  garden,  278. 
Fungi,  367,  368,  392,  476,  492. 
Funnel-web  spider,   248. 
Fur-bearers,  79,  407,  432. 

Game,  big,  461. 

Game  birds,  134,  440. 

Game  laws,  136,  441. 

Gardening,    18,    259;     school,    258, 

Chap.  XX;   window,  283. 
Garter-snake,  161. 
Generalization,  28,  41. 
Geography  and  nature-study,  55. 
Geotropism,  339. 
Germination,  299,  423,  465,  Chap. 

-X..X.. 

Germinators,  300. 
Giant  silkworm,  240. 
Girdle-scars,  313. 
Glacial  deposits,  468. 
Goldfish,  168,  174,  407. 
Goose,  115,  117,  123,  415,  440. 
Gossamers,  248. 
Grafting,  288. 
Granite,  437. 
Grass,  309,  353,  460. 
Grasshopper,    common,    184,    222, 

429;   green,  234. 
Grebe,  115. 
Greenhouse,  283. 
,  Grouse,  104,  108,  119,  120. 
Guano,  124. 
Gulls,  103. 

Hair-snake,  223. 

Harmful  birds,  145;  snakes,  149; 
insects,  211;  plants,  see  Weeds, 
poisonous  plants,  fungi,  and  bac- 
teria. 

Harvest,  418. 

Hawk,  100,  in,  119,  124,  126,  128, 

439- 
Hawk-moth,  240. 


Heat,  Chap.  XX. 

Hemiptera,  194. 

Herbarium,  338. 

Herring,  173. 

Hibernation,  442;    frogs,  155;    toad, 

159;     snakes,    162;     turtle,    163; 

cocoons,  197;  flies,  205 ;  plants,  312. 
Hive,  observation,  210. 
Honey,  206. 
Horned  toad,  161. 
Horse,  421. 
Hotbed,  276. 
Humming-bird,  103,  107,   no,  113, 

122. 

Hybrids,  330. 
Hydra,  256. 
Hygiene,  Chap.  XX. 
Hymenoptera,  205. 

Ichneumon-fly,  228. 

Illustrative  material,  25,  33. 

Imagination  in  nature-study,  n. 

Induction,  n. 

Industrial  topics,  Chap.  XX. 

Informal  nature  lessons,  21. 

Insecticides,  294,  Chap.  XIV. 

Insects,  aquatic,  191,  430;  bees, 
205;  beetles,  199;  beneficial,  205, 
224,  230;  bugs,  192;  butterfly, 
cabbage,  194,  monarch,  197;  but- 
terflies, frontispiece,  236;  cocoon, 
201;  collecting,  176;  dragon-fly, 
189;  flies,  203,  459;  harmful,  211, 
221,  430;  insects  and  birds,  121, 
126,  175;  insects  and  flowers,  326; 
killing,  180;  lessons,  Chap.  XX; 
locust,  184;  moths,  198;  mount- 
ing, 181,  489;  net,  80;  parasites, 
227;  protective  adaptation,  243; 
spreading,  182;  structure,  types, 
184;  where  found,  176. 

Instinct  for  nature  in  children,  16. 

Inventions,  454,  469. 

Iodine  test,  316,  462. 

lo  moth,  241. 

Iron,  453. 

Jack-in-the-pulpit,  309. 
June  beetle,  200. 
June  grass,  309. 


INDEX 


543 


Kallima,  244. 
Katydid,  234. 
Killing  insects,  180. 
Kingbird,  122. 
Kingfisher,  113. 
Knotweed,  349. 

Laboratory  for  grades,  484. 

Lacey  act,  138. 

Lady  bug,  227. 

Lady's-slipper,  226. 

Lapland  longspur,  133. 

Layering,  288. 

Leaf-scar,  313. 

Leather,  79. 

Leaves,    function,    313;     modified, 

320,  480. 
Leech,  255. 
Lepidoptera,  198. 
Lesson  plan,  25. 
Levers,  469. 
Lice,  214. 
Lichen,  392. 
Light,  486,  499. 
Light  and  leaves,  318,  320,  340. 
Lighting,  427. 

Literature  and  nature-study,  62. 
Liverwort,  391. 
Living    creatures    for    illustrations, 

35>  46. 
Lizard,  160. 
Lobster,  252. 
Locust,  184,  222,  429. 
Lumbering,  505. 
Luna  moth,  242. 

Machines,  454. 

Magnet,  455. 

Magnetism,  500. 

Malaria,  213. 

Mammal      lessons,      Chap.      XX, 

446.  _ 

Man,  history  of  civilization,  502. 
Maple  sugar,  423. 
Marble,  454. 
Marchantia,  314. 
Martin,  145. 
Meal-worm,  201. 
Metals,  438,  455,  468,  485,  487. 
Microgaster,  228. 


Migration,  birds,  91,  116,  415,  428, 
489;  butterflies,  238;  plants,  340. 

Milk,  pure,  439. 

Milkweed  butterfly,  197,  237. 

Milkweed,  seed,  348. 

Millinery  plumage,  123,  133. 

Millipedes,  250. 

Mimicry,  butterflies,  238;  insects,  243. 

Minerals,  438,  468,  485. 

Minnows,  173. 

Mocking-bird,  109. 

Mollusks,  253. 

Monarch  butterfly,  197,  237. 

Morning-glory,  341,  342. 

Mosquitoes,  211,429,496;  culex,  213; 
extermination,  214;  malaria,  213. 

Moss,  390,  475,  503. 

Mother-of-pearl,  255. 

Moths,  198,  236,  416. 

Moulds,  476,  495. 

Moulting,  birds,  107;    insects,  188. 

Mourning-cloak,  236. 

Movements  of  plants,  338,  496. 

Mud-puppy,  152,  160. 

Muscles,  428. 

Museum,  43. 

Mushrooms,  367,  392,  476,  492. 

Naturalist,  the,  49,  83. 

Nature  readers,  64;  reference  list, 
see  Appendix. 

Nature-study,  aesthetics,  14,  58; 
correlation,  53;  cultural  value,  15; 
culture-epoch  theory,  10;  curi- 
osity, 6;  educational  value,  8; 
ethical  value,  18,  259;  illustrative 
material,  33;  imagination,  n; 
method  of  presentation,  21;  mo- 
tive, 3;  reason,  n;  social  aspect, 
3;  utility,  12. 

Necturus,  152. 

Nests,  92,  no. 

Net,  insect,  180. 

Newt,  1 60. 

Night-hawk,  109,  no,  118,  122. 

Nightingale,  109. 

Note-book,  484. 

Nuthatch,  112,  119,  120,  143. 

Nuts,  352. 

Nymph  of  dragon-fly,  190. 


544 


NATURE-STUDY 


Oak,  331,  493. 

Observation,  8,  47. 

Onion  bulb,  310,  321. 

Orb  spider,  248. 

Orchard,  460;    enemies,  217;    birds, 

Chap.  XX. 
Oriole,  104,  106,  in,  113,  120,  122, 

124,  221. 
Orthoptera,  189. 
Oscillatoria,  339. 
Ostrich,  103,  136. 

Owl,  101,  in,  112, 119, 124, 126, 128. 
Oxygen,  500;   from  plants,  319. 
Oysters,  255. 

Painted  beauty  butterfly,  237. 
Parachute  fruits  and  seeds,  336,  447. 
Parasites,  insects,   224,  227;    fungi, 

392- 

Peacock,  106. 

Penguin,  103. 

Perch,  173. 

Perennials,  281,  296. 

Pets,  72,  404. 

Phcebe,  in,  112,  122. 

Photography,  500. 

Photosynthesis,  316. 

Physiography  lessons,  499,  see  Earth- 
study. 

Physiology,  human,  Chap.  XX. 

Physics  lessons,  Chap.  XX. 

Pickerel,  173. 

Pictures,  36. 

Pigeons,  135. 

Pill-bug,  251. 

Pine,  seeds,  349;    lumber,  373,  433. 

Pitcher-plant,  320. 

Plant-lice,  217. 

Plants,  physiology,  Chap.  XVII, 
450,  479,  496;  movements,  338, 
496;  useful,  353,  356,  420,  433, 
490;  poisonous,  492;  aquatic, 
491;  improvement,  505;  intro- 
duction, 506;  diseases,  493,  504; 
graded  lessons,  Chap.  XX. 

Plantain,  315. 

Planting,  271;    trees,  378. 

Pleasures  in  nature,  14. 

Plover,  1 1 8. 

Plumage,  102. 


Poetry  of  nature,  17,  65. 

Poisonous  plants,  492. 

Pollination,  209,  224,  324,  326,  329, 
459,  465,  481,  Chap.  XX. 

Polygonum,  349. 

Potato,  310,  431,  433. 

Potting,  283. 

Poultry,   145,  447,  464. 

Prairie  chicken,  120,  122. 

Prairies,  366. 

Preparation  of  teachers,  25, 34, 41, 49. 

Presentation  methods,  21,  23,  24. 

Promethea  moth,  241. 

Propolis,  209. 

Protection  of  birds,  132,  464;  mam- 
mals, 502;  trees,  374. 

Protective  coloration,  birds,  96,  104; 
frog,  155;  toad,  157;  insects,  243. 

Protective  devices  of  insects,  241. 

Puff-balls,  395. 

Pumps,  469. 

Pussy-willow,  311,  333. 

Quail,  104,  no,  119,  120,  122. 
Questioning,  29. 

Rabbit,  407. 

Rattlesnake,  163. 

Reasoning  in  nature-study,  ji,  66. 

Red  admiral  butterfly,  236. 

Reference  books,  see  Appendix. 

Reptiles,  148,  160. 

Respiration,  471. 

Robin,  103,  106,  107,  in,  112,  116, 

117,  118,  120,  122,  124. 
Rock  formation,  453. 
Rodents,  78,  415,  439. 
Root,  303,  339. 
Root-stalk,  309. 
Rose-breasted    grosbeak,    82,    iif 

122. 

Runners,  308. 

Russian  "thistle,"  346,  351. 
Rusts,  493. 

Sage,  225. 
Salamander,  159. 
Salmon,  173. 
Sap,  rise  of,  304,  479. 
Sapsucker,  125. 


INDEX 


545 


Scale  insect,  218. 

Scarlet  tanager,  106,  122. 

School  garden,  258,  263. 

School  grounds,  beautification  of, 
281,  374- 

Sea-urchin,  255. 

Seal,  463- 

Seed,  study  of,  302;  collection  of, 
418;  starting,  275,  299;  selection 
for  improvement,  496;  for  school 
garden,  269;  dispersal,  342,  431, 

474- 

Seedlings,  496;  see  Germination. 

Sensitive  plant,"  342. 

Sensitiveness  of  plants,  338. 

Sexual  coloration,  106. 

Sheep,  80,  419,  428,  462. 

Shrubs,  281,  298. 

Silk-moth,  229. 

Skink,  161. 

Skylark,  108,  109. 

Sleeping  position  of  plants,  341. 

Slips,  462. 

Snails,  253. 

Snake,  161,  433. 

Snowbird,  119,  120. 

Squash,  375. 

Squash-bug,  216. 

Squirrel,  78,  404,  415. 

Squirrel-tail  grass,  350. 

Soil  study,  482. 

Solomon's-seal,  309. 

Songs  of  birds,  95,  108. 

Sound,  lessons,  Chap.  XX. 

Sparrows,  103,  104,  116,  119,  120, 
126,  129;  house  or  English  spar- 
row, 107,  114,  119,  126,  145. 

Specimens,  34,  43,  46. 

Sphinx-moth,  226,  238,  240. 

Spider,  246,  417. 

Spines,  321. 

Spinneret,  250. 

Sponge,  257,  478. 

Spores,  £04,  503. 

Spraying,  295. 

Spreading  board,  .182. 

Starch-making  by  plants,  m6,  478. 

Starch  test,  316,  462. 

Starchy  foods,  456. 

Starfish,  255. 


Steam-engine,  485. 

Stems  of  plants,  305,  339;   modified, 

308;   underground,  308. 
Stickleback,  174. 

Stories,  as  illustrative  material,  39, 64. 
Strawberry  runners,  308. 
Sucker,  173. 
Sugar,  sources,  447. 
Sugar-beet,  448,  498. 
Sugar-cane,  447. 
Summary,  29. 
Sunfish,  173. 
Sunflower,  333,  340,  443. 
Swallow,  103,  in,  112, 113, 122, 132. 
Swallow-tail  butterfly,  236. 
Swamp  vegetation,  445. 
Swan,  440. 

Swarming  of  bees,  209. 
Sweet-pea,  226,  352. 
Swift  (bird),  102,  113,  122. 
Swift  (lizard),  161. 
Syrphus-fly,  228. 

Tachinid  fly,  224. 

Tadpoles,  150. 

Teeth,  427. 

Tendrils,  321,  341. 

Tent  caterpillar,  220. 

Thistle,  336. 

Thousand-legs,  251. 

Thrush,  97,  104,  108,  122,  124. 

Tiger  caterpillar,  199. 

Toad,  156,  417. 

Toadstool,  392,  367,  476,  492. 

Tomato  worm,  239. 

Transpiration,  314,  361. 

Transplanting,  277. 

Trees,  general,  307,  338,  358,  Chap. 
XX;  stem  section,  307,  358;  an- 
nual rings,  307;  cambium  layer, 
359;  bark,  359;  branching,  360; 
leaf  arrangement,  361;  foliage, 
361;  autumn  colors,  362;  leaf 
fall,  363;  tree  flowers,  363,  450; 
seed  dispersal,  364;  .life  condi- 
tions, 364;  forest,  366;  life  cycle, 
367;  planting,  378;  tree  list,  379; 
shade  trees,  498;  Arbor  Day,  374, 
384;  trees  in  winter,  420;  leaf 
collection,  431. 


546 


NATURE-STUDY 


Trillium,  321. 

Triton,  160. 

Tropical  fruits,  491. 

Trout,  173. 

Tsetse  fly,  224. 

Tuber,  310. 

Turkey,  106,  108,  115,  122. 

Turtle,  163. 

Twigs,  313. 

Useful  animals,  79,  80,  122,  134,  145, 
224,  406,  407,  414,  419,  421,  428, 
432,  461,  462,  479;  plants,  353, 
356>  37°>  420,  433,  460,  490. 

Utility  of  nature-study,  12. 

Vegetables,  295,  405. 

Ventilation,  454. 

Viceroy  butterfly,  238,  244. 

Vines,  296. 

Violet-tip  butterfly,  237. 

Vireo,  in,  122. 

Virginia  creeper,  341. 

Waahoo,  352. 

Walking  stick,  244,  442. 

Warblers,  122. 

Wasp,  205,  457. 

Water,  439,  468,  470,  471. 


Water-fleas,  251. 

Water  hyacinth,  167. 

Water  milfoil,  167. 

Water  power,  485. 

Weather,  469,  486,  Chap.  XX. 

Weeds,  120,  121,  126,  351,  465,  474. 

492. 

Wheat,  353,  460. 
Whip-poor-will,  104,  109,  no. 
Wild-flower  garden,  282,  297. 
Wilting  of  plants,  314. 
Wind,  486,  Chap.  XX. 
Wind  pollination,  327. 
Window-boxes,  284,  297,  420,  433. 
Window  gardening,  283,  284. 
Wing,  92,  122. 
Wolf,  419. 

Wood,  307,  358,  463. 
Woodbine,  341. 
Wood-lice,  251. 
Woodpecker,  112,  119,  120,  121,  125, 

126,  143,  221. 
Wool,  80,  407. 
Wren,  112,  114,  145. 
Wrigglers,  211. 

Yearly  growth  of  twigs,  313. 

Yeast,  495. 

Yellow  fever  and  mosquitoes,  213 


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